The purpose of this study was to identify how parents’ use of language and literacy strategies during an adapted shared book reading activity relate to social, behavioral, and cognitive skills for their children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants were 111 young children (ages 4–7 years) with ASD and their mothers. A factor analysis of the items used in the coding system, yielded a four-factor model of parent-led behaviors during the shared book reading activity: clarification, feedback, teaching, and evocative techniques. In regression analyses, the frequency of parents’ use of clarification, feedback, and evocative strategies used during the shared reading task were related to certain demographic and child factors. Results have implications for the types of structure and support that parents might provide their young children with ASD during informal reading sessions.
Using the least restrictive environments (LRE) data from annual Reports to Congress, this study examined national trends in placement between 2000 and 2014 for school-aged students considered to have significant disabilities from among the categories of autism (ASD), intellectual disability (ID), multiple disabilities (MD), and deaf-blindness (DB). Educational placement trends were calculated using a log ratio index, and students with significant disabilities were compared with groups of students from the other disability groups. Results confirmed that access to general education settings is lacking for this group of students. Implications for policies and practices as well as suggested future research are provided.
Modeling growth for students with significant cognitive disabilities (SWSCD) is difficult due to a variety of factors, including, but not limited to, missing data, test scaling, group heterogeneity, and small sample sizes. These challenges may account for the paucity of previous research exploring the academic growth of SWSCD. Our study represents a unique context in which a reading assessment, calibrated to a common scale, was administered statewide to students in consecutive years across Grades 3 to 5. We used a nonlinear latent growth curve pattern-mixture model to estimate students’ achievement and growth while accounting for patterns of missing data. While we observed significant intercept differences across disability subgroups, there were no significant slope differences. Incorporating missing data patterns into our models improved model fit. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.
Even with inclusive general education classrooms, high school students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have few social interactions with classmates. Peer support arrangements hold promise for increasing peer interactions and shared learning within general education classrooms. However, previous evaluations of this intervention have focused narrowly on adolescents with severe intellectual disability. In this pilot study, we examined the impact and social validity of peer support arrangements for four high school students with ASD. All four students increased their social interactions with peers, while academic engagement either increased or maintained for three students. Social validity data from peer partners and students indicated they considered the intervention acceptable. We discuss limitations and offer recommendations for future research and practice aimed at enhancing social connections within inclusive classrooms.
This study investigated how student and school-level socioeconomic status (SES) measures predict students’ odds of being identified for special education, particularly high-incidence disabilities. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten cohort, hierarchical models were used to determine the relations of student and school SES to special education identification. Results indicated neither student-level SES variables for parent education, prestige, and income, nor school-level aggregates of SES measures, predicted overall special education placement, but higher parent education attainment was negatively related to high-incidence disability identification (adjusted odds ratio = 0.73). These findings suggest that racial disproportionality is not attributable to racial differences in income and indicate a need for further investigation of the mechanisms by which the longstanding racial disparities in special education emerge and are maintained. In particular, we discuss the implications of this study for further research into the relations of indicators of parent’s status on educational decisions within special education.
In this single-subject study, we examined the effects of a summarizing strategy on the written summaries of children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBDs). Six students with EBDs in fifth and sixth grades learned a mnemonic-based strategy for summarizing taught through the self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) approach. Visual analyses were conducted, along with estimated effect sizes using quantitative methods at both the individual level and across cases. Visual analyses revealed evidence for a functional relation between the treatment program and quality points. Quantitatively, very large effects were noted for all six students. Anecdotal evidence suggested the students understood the purpose of the strategy and could independently recall the steps of the mnemonic by the end of the intervention. Results suggest that the strategy has the potential to improve the summary writing skills of students with EBDs. Limitations and future directions are discussed.
Students with mathematics learning disabilities (MLD) have a weak understanding of fraction concepts and skills, which are foundations of algebra. Such students might benefit from computer-assisted instruction that utilizes evidence-based instructional components (cognitive strategies, feedback, virtual manipulatives). As a pilot study using a multiple baseline design, with multiple probes, this study investigated the effects of Fun Fraction, a multi-component computer-assisted instructional program, on word problem solving with fractions abilities of three middle school students with MLD. Mixed findings were observed on word problem solving performance from the baseline to intervention phase after students received instruction through Fun Fraction. The percentage of non-overlapping data ranged from 56% through 100%. Limitations, suggestions for future research, and educational implications are discussed.
Evidence of the powerful impact teachers have on student achievement has led to an intensive focus on cultivating effective teachers, including special education teachers (SETs). Local special education administrators (LSEAs) share responsibility for cultivating effective SETs throughout their districts. However, the roles LSEAs play in this process have not been clearly defined through research. This qualitative investigation used grounded theory methods to examine how LSEAs in the Victoria School District, a high-performing, inclusive district, described their roles cultivating a district-wide community of effective SETs. The findings have implications for districts’ efforts to cultivate effective SETs systemically and for future research on effective district-level leadership for special education.
We examined instructional processes in classrooms where students with and without disabilities received mathematics instruction to understand the relationship among key instructional process variables and achievement as measured by interim and end-of-year summative assessments. Teachers (N = 78) completed instructional logs daily and administered easyCBM probes quarterly to 162 students with disabilities and 165 students without disabilities. Examination of instructional data indicated both groups of students had nearly equal opportunities to learn (OTLs) the same mathematics content, yet there were significant differences in these students’ mathematics achievement on interim and summative tests. Special education status and instructional practices were found to be significant predictors of achievement growth. Furthermore, grade level and special education status, along with OTL scores, accounted for significant variance in end-of-year mathematics scores. Discussion of results focuses on instructional practice implications and the role these practices play in achievement gaps.
The study aimed to analyze the effects on reading of an early oral and written language intervention program for Spanish children at risk of learning difficulties. The goal of this classroom-based program was to prioritize a systematic approach to reading and writing and to foster phonological knowledge and the development of oral language (phonology, semantics, morphology, and syntax) within the Spanish school curriculum. The sample comprised 56 students at risk of learning difficulties. The repeated-measures longitudinal design involved four assessment and three intervention points over a period of 3 years, considering two study groups (instruction vs. no instruction) and two variables (reading accuracy and reading comprehension). Children were assessed between the ages of 5 and 7 years. The instruction group scored higher on both reading accuracy and reading comprehension at all assessment points. Overall, the results demonstrate that this early intervention program for oral and written language is an effective way of improving the reading performance of children at risk of learning difficulties.
A critical aspect of intervention research is investigating the active ingredients that underlie intensive interventions and their theories of change. This study explored the rate of instructional interactions within treatment groups to determine whether they offered explanatory power of an empirically validated Tier 2 kindergarten mathematics intervention. Direct observations were conducted in 46 interventions groups, involving approximately 228 students. Multilevel structural equation models revealed that fall mathematics achievement significantly and negatively predicted the rate of academic feedback. Specifically, intervention groups with lower student mathematics achievement at the start of the kindergarten year received higher rates of academic feedback. Analyses also suggested that latent rates of instructional interactions were not significantly correlated with gains on student mathematics outcomes. Implications are discussed in relation to specifying the underlying mechanisms to intensify mathematics interventions, documenting local adaptation of intervention implementation, and examining possible threshold effects of instructional interactions.
Replication is a critical aspect of scientific inquiry that presents a variety of challenges to researchers, even under the best of conditions. We conducted a review of replication rates in special education journals similar to the review conducted by Makel et al. in this issue. Unknowingly conducting independent reviews allowed for an unexpected opportunity to examine how two teams of researchers attempted to replicate a previously published study and explore similarities and differences between the outcomes. In our review, we identified 70 replication studies published between 1997 and 2013, indicating that 0.41% of published articles in special education journals are replication studies. Similar to findings reported by Makel et al., our review indicates that most replications are successful and that successful replications are more likely when author overlap occurs. Although there are similar patterns in the two data sets, an examination of exact agreement on article inclusion revealed an agreement rate of 15.2%. Possible explanations for the discrepancy and implications for future directions are provided.
We developed a reporting guideline to provide authors with guidance about what should be reported when writing a paper for publication in a scientific journal using a particular type of research design: the single-case experimental design. This report describes the methods used to develop the Single-Case Reporting guideline In BEhavioural interventions (SCRIBE) 2016. As a result of 2 online surveys and a 2-day meeting of experts, the SCRIBE 2016 checklist was developed, which is a set of 26 items that authors need to address when writing about single-case research. This article complements the more detailed SCRIBE 2016 Explanation and Elaboration article (Tate et al., 2016) that provides a rationale for each of the items and examples of adequate reporting from the literature. Both these resources will assist authors to prepare reports of single-case research with clarity, completeness, accuracy, and transparency. They will also provide journal reviewers and editors with a practical checklist against which such reports may be critically evaluated. We recommend that the SCRIBE 2016 is used by authors preparing manuscripts describing single-case research for publication, as well as journal reviewers and editors who are evaluating such manuscripts.
Reporting guidelines, such as the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) Statement, improve the reporting of research in the medical literature (Turner et al., 2012). Many such guidelines exist and the CONSORT Extension to Nonpharmacological Trials (Boutron et al., 2008) provides suitable guidance for reporting between- groups intervention studies in the behavioral sciences. The CONSORT Extension for N-of-1 Trials (CENT 2015) was developed for multiple crossover trials with single individuals in the medical sciences (Shamseer et al., 2015; Vohra et al., 2015), but there is no reporting guideline in the CONSORT tradition for single-case research used in the behavioral sciences. We developed the Single-Case Reporting guideline In BEhavioural interventions (SCRIBE) 2016 to meet this need. This Statement article describes the methodology of the development of the SCRIBE 2016, along with the outcome of 2 Delphi surveys and a consensus meeting of experts. We present the resulting 26-item SCRIBE 2016 checklist. The article complements the more detailed SCRIBE 2016 Explanation and Elaboration article (Tate et al., 2016) that provides a rationale for each of the items and examples of adequate reporting from the literature. Both these resources will assist authors to prepare reports of single-case research with clarity, completeness, accuracy, and transparency. They will also provide journal reviewers and editors with a practical checklist against which such reports may be critically evaluated.
Teachers and paraprofessionals need effective training to improve their implementation of interventions for students with disabilities. Reviews of the single-case design literature have identified some features associated with effective training for these educators, but the group-design literature has received little attention. This meta-analysis systematically reviews group-design studies testing the efficacy of training to improve implementation of interventions for students with disabilities. The mean effect size of educator training on implementation fidelity was g = 1.08, and results from meta-regression analysis suggest training that involves a combination of two specific training strategies (i.e., modeling and performance feedback) was associated with improved implementation fidelity. Increased duration of training was not associated with larger effects. Considered alongside findings from the single-case design literature, these results suggest that how educators are trained is a more important consideration than the number of hours they spend in training.
Special education researchers conduct studies that can be considered replications. However, they do not often refer to them as replication studies. The purpose of this article is to consider the potential benefits of conceptualizing special education intervention research within a framework of systematic, conceptual replication. Specifically, we advocate for the value and importance of replication research that includes both closely aligned and distal conceptual replications. We acknowledge the challenges associated with conducting replications in applied school-based research and also provide recommendations for how to design, conduct, and report replication studies in special education research with the goal of supporting the identification of effective practices for individuals with disabilities.
This study provides results on a methodological quality review of the single-case research literature from 1998 to 2014 on the use of social skills interventions for students with challenging behavior. A systematic review of the social skills literature was conducted with the intent of updating the Mathur et al. study of social skills interventions. Twenty-four studies, published between 1998 and 2014, were identified and coded for methodological quality. Findings indicated half the studies failed to meet single-case design standards. Many studies did not sufficiently report reliability, implementation fidelity, or provide adequate opportunities to demonstrate intervention effect. The three most common behaviors across all studies were noncompliance, negative verbal interactions, and class disruptions. The majority of studies were conducted in early elementary grades. Results are discussed in the context of the need for greater methodological rigor for future single-case research studies in the area of social skills instruction.
Bullying is a serious issue affecting the psychological, social, and physical well-being of students. Although a substantial amount of bullying research has been conducted with general education students, there is a paucity of experimental prevention or intervention studies specifically focused on students with disabilities. The aim of this article is twofold. First, we introduce a special issue on bullying and students with disabilities. Summaries of recent studies conducted on the bullying and students with disabilities are described. Next, we report the findings from a systematic literature review on bully intervention studies focused on students with disabilities. We identified six experimental studies meeting the search criteria. One study met all of the quality research indicators. Findings, future directions, and conclusions are discussed taking into consideration quality research indicators for evidence-based bullying prevention or intervention studies.
Replicating previously reported empirical research is a necessary aspect of an evidence-based field of special education, but little formal investigation into the prevalence of replication research in the special education research literature has been conducted. Various factors may explain the lack of attention to replication of special education intervention research, including emphasis on quantity of publications, esteem for novel findings, and barriers to publishing high-quality studies with null or negative effects. This article introduces the special issue on replication of special education intervention research by first providing an overview of concepts and issues related to replication. Specific attention is then given to replication as it relates to group design and single case experimental design research, two prominent albeit philosophically different empirical methodologies. We then briefly describe how replications using these research designs can be conducted in complementary ways to better understand intervention effects and advance evidence-based practices in special education.
Despite the importance of replication for building an evidence base, there has been no formal examination to date of replication research in special education. In this review, we examined the extent and nature of replication of intervention research in special education using an "article progeny" approach and a three-pronged definition of replication (direct, conceptual, intervention overlap). In this approach, original articles (i.e., parent studies) were selected via a stratified, random sampling procedure. Next, we examined all articles that referenced the parent articles (i.e., child studies) to determine the extent and nature of the replication of the original studies. Seventy-five percent of the parent studies were replicated by at least one child study. Across all parent studies, there were 39 replication child studies. Although there was a high overall replication rate, there were a limited number of conceptual replications, and no direct replication studies were identified.
In this review, we applied Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory to examine factors that support or restrict access to the general curriculum for students with significant disabilities. We organize the literature in relationship to factors within the micro-, meso-, macro-, exo-, and chronosystems that influence decisions about access to the general curriculum for individual students. We discuss these factors in relationship to placement, instructional contexts, and instructional content. Implications for research and practice are provided.
Increased calls for rigor in special education have often revolved around the use of experimental research design. However, the replicability of research results is also a central tenet to the scientific research process. To assess the prevalence, success rate, and authorship history of replications in special education, we investigated the complete publication history of every replication published in the 36 journals categorized by ISI Web of Knowledge Journal Citation Report as special education. We found that 0.5% of all articles reported seeking to replicate a previously published finding. More than 80% of these replications reported successfully replicating previous findings. However, replications where there was at least one author overlapping with the original article (which happens about two thirds of the time) were statistically significantly more likely to find successful results.
The present investigation examines the schoolwide applications model (SAM) as a potentially effective school reform model for increasing equity-based inclusive education practices while enhancing student reading and math achievement for all students. A 3-year quasi-experimental comparison group analysis using latent growth modeling (LGM) was used with seven urban elementary or elementary/middle schools and seven matched comparison schools in the same district. Results suggest significantly larger growth for experimental school students in math and no statistically significant difference in reading score growth between experimental and comparison schools. However, reading score growth for experimental schools was statistically significant in a post hoc analysis of selected schools. Additional descriptive analysis is presented for three schools that implemented the model with the highest measured fidelity; these schools made improvements on both reading and math scores while those of matching comparison schools decreased.
The current study evaluated the effects of modified schema-based instruction on the mathematical word problem solving skills of three elementary students with autism spectrum disorders and moderate intellectual disability. Participants learned to solve compare problem type with themes that related to their interests and daily experiences. In addition, researchers compared the effects of concrete and virtual manipulatives within the treatment package. Results of the multiple probes across participants with an embedded alternating treatments design showed a functional relation between modified schema-based instruction and word problem solving. Two of three participants performed more steps in the virtual condition and one participant had equal performance in both concrete and virtual conditions. When given a choice between conditions upon skill mastery, all three participants preferred the virtual condition and maintained treatment effects. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
The literature on bullying among students with disabilities is burgeoning. The purpose of this study was to examine risk factors for adolescents’ involvement in bullying across the bullying continuum. Drawing from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2), 2,870 adolescents with disabilities were sampled. Results from multinomial regression analyses indicated that internalizing symptoms and interpersonal skills were significant predictors of victimization and bully-victimization risk, respectively. Disability status emerged as a significant predictor only for bullying behavior. Ethnic differences were found for victimization roles, but not for bullying, suggesting that Caucasian students were most vulnerable to being the target of bullying or serving dual roles as bully-victims relative to students from other ethnic backgrounds. Implications for these findings are discussed.
Although the orthographic processing skill of recognizing and producing letters and letter patterns has been established as an important skill for developing spelling, a majority of the research focus has been on early orthographic intervention that did not progress beyond the unit of the letter. The purpose of this article is to provide a best evidence synthesis of current high-quality, peer-reviewed, experimental or control studies on spelling interventions with a focus on orthographic patterns (N = 5). This small synthesis revealed that spelling interventions with an orthographic pattern focus appear to contribute to the significant improvement of spelling skills in kindergarten through ninth-grade students with and at risk for reading disabilities. Several intervention approaches with varying methods to improve orthographic pattern knowledge were considered and were related to moderate to large effect sizes on standardized measures of spelling. Thus, the reviewed interventions appear to reflect educationally significant changes in orthographic pattern knowledge that transferred beyond that of taught spelling words.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the overall effectiveness of a three-tier model of positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS), which was developed and tested in Head Start (HS) programs. Ten HS classrooms from five HS programs participated in the current study. Results indicated that PBIS was effective in improving classroom quality as evidenced by a statistically significant change on the classroom organization domain on the Classroom Assessment Scoring System and the overall score on the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale–Revised. We also found that children’s social skills on the Social Skills Rating System significantly increased from the pre- to post-assessment whereas problem behaviors on the Child Behavior Checklist decreased. The data described here are encouraging and add to the expanding database supporting the value of the three-tier model of PBIS.
Students with disabilities are disproportionately involved within the bullying dynamic. However, few studies have investigated the interaction between victimization and proactive or reactive aggression, and psychosocial predictors for bullying involvement among school-aged youth with disabilities. This study used structural equation modeling to examine the predictive nature of depression, hostility, and self-esteem on victimization, bullying, fighting, bully-victimization, and reactive-victimization for a diverse sample of 1,183 adolescents with disabilities. Results suggest that victimization predicted bullying and fighting. In addition, lower levels of depression and higher levels of hostility predicted bullying and fighting; higher levels of depression, hostility, and lower levels of self-esteem predicted higher levels of victimization. Finally, higher levels of depression, hostility, and lower levels of self-esteem predicted bully-victim and reactive-victim status. Therefore, schools should begin to incorporate targeted interventions that address skill development, social and emotional learning, and emotion regulation to address escalated rates of bullying involvement for youth with disabilities.
Although peer-mediated interventions are an evidence-based approach for improving social and learning outcomes for students with intellectual disability (ID), their impact on participating peers has received limited attention. Knowing whether and how peers are affected could influence the extent to which these interventions are more widely adopted in schools. The purpose of this review was to (a) summarize extant research on the behaviors of peers without disabilities and their perception of interacting with students with ID, (b) identify common behaviors measured for peers, and (c) evaluate the effects of peer-mediated interventions on peers. Toward that effort, we reviewed 53 studies. Results indicate that interventions have successfully increased peers’ interactions with their classmates with ID and suggest some positive outcome for peers; however, consistent methodological gaps limit further analysis. We offer recommendations for strengthening future research involving peers within interventions for students with ID.
This 3-year study evaluated the effectiveness of the Second Step–Student Success Through Prevention (SS-SSTP) social-emotional learning program on increasing prosocial behaviors that could serve as protective factors against peer conflict and bullying among students with disabilities. Participants included 123 students with disabilities across 12 schools in Midwest United States. Students labelled with a disability were selected for inclusion. Students completed self-report measures of school belonging, empathy, caring, and willingness to intervene in bullying situations. Report card grades and standardized test scores were collected from school records. Students with disabilities in the intervention schools reported a statistical and clinical significant increase in willingness to intervene in bullying incidents in comparison with students with disabilities in control schools and an increase of half a grade on their report cards in comparison with the control sample. The current study demonstrates the promise of social-emotional learning programming for students with disabilities.
Reading comprehension is a critical skill for school success. Struggling readers can benefit from computer-assisted instruction that utilizes components of effective instruction (e.g., frequent practice, immediate feedback). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of Headsprout Comprehension, a computer-assisted reading program, on the reading comprehension of six elementary students with high-incidence disabilities (i.e., learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, and other health impairment–attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (OHI-ADHD). A multiple baseline across participants’ design demonstrated that Headsprout Comprehension was functionally related to substantial increases in reading comprehension for all six participants as measured by Ohio Achievement Assessment (OAA) passage comprehension questions and AIMSweb Maze assessments.
This study examines whether explicit reading comprehension instruction is relevant for students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Forty-five students (M age = 9 years) were randomly assigned to two conditions: control or intervention. Those assigned to the intervention condition received instruction on vocabulary, main idea identification, text structure, and anaphoric relations. Compared with their peers in the control condition, students in the intervention condition showed greater improvement on one measure of reading comprehension. They also knew the meaning of more words and were better able to identify main ideas and anaphoric relations, with some of these gains still being detectable at the follow-up. Although additional adaptations appear warranted, students with high-functioning ASD clearly benefited from instruction.
The purpose of this study was to provide preliminary evidence of the criterion-related validity of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) for reading, mathematics, and written expression with postsecondary students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (ID). The participants included 41 postsecondary students with ID enrolled in a 2-year certificate program at a large Midwestern university. CBMs were administered to participants using standardized procedures, and results were compared with performance on the Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Achievement. Descriptive statistics were calculated as were bivariate correlations between CBM measures and the content-appropriate criterion measure. Results are discussed in terms of the potential use of CBMs as indicators of academic performance for postsecondary students with ID.
Valid, scientific research is critical for ascertaining the effects of instructional techniques on learners with disabilities and for guiding effective special education practice and policy. Researchers in fields such as psychology and medicine have identified serious and widespread shortcomings in their research literatures related to replication and bias, leading many to question the validity of research findings in these fields. Replication and bias have not been systematically examined in special education research. In this article, I explore research on replication and bias conducted in other fields, discuss the likelihood that problems in replication and bias may exist in the special education research base, propose a research agenda for investigating replication and bias in special education research, and make initial recommendations for increasing replication and reducing bias in intervention studies in special education.
One of the field’s most enduring problems is the overrepresentation of students of color in special education. A less acknowledged challenge is the overrepresentation of students with disabilities in juvenile incarceration. Quantitative studies have documented the overrepresentation of students with disabilities in juvenile justice. Yet, little is known about the education they receive once they become incarcerated. This qualitative study examined the education of 10 young women of color labeled with emotional disabilities in the School-to-Prison Pipeline. Through in-depth interviews and observations, this study explored the following questions: (a) What processes and practices impact juvenile incarceration education for students with historically marginalized identities (e.g., disability, gender, race, culture)? (b) How is the education of young women of color with disabilities affected by these processes and practices? Findings illustrate how socializing processes and practices aimed at control and compliance constrain education in juvenile justice but also provide an opportunity to do better.
Despite previous and successful attempts to outline general criteria for rigor, researchers in special education have debated the application of rigor criteria, the significance or importance of small n research, the purpose of interpretivist approaches, and the generalizability of qualitative empirical results. Adding to these complications, the breadth of qualitative research methods makes a single set of universally applicable criteria difficult to identify and use. Based on input from qualitative researchers across the social sciences, we augment and expand the oft-cited criteria for rigor established in special education, thus broadening the potential application and contribution of qualitative research in the areas of disability and education. We identify exemplars from special education research and use these to illustrate ways qualitative research can push the field to strengthen the theoretical foundations of empirical work, as well as to acknowledge more forthrightly the roles of the researcher in the research endeavor.
Long-term, adolescent English language learners (ELLs) experience persistent academic underachievement in spite of several years of schooling; yet, the research on this topic is scant. To increase our understanding of these students’ educational experiences, we explored perceptions of 13 long-term ELLs about their schooling in the context of their school history, including program placements, special education referral, and academic outcomes. Data from semistructured interviews and documents were analyzed using a grounded theory approach. Participants viewed themselves as English-proficient, motivated learners, and described their school experience as positive but challenging. The findings revealed a gap between their postsecondary aspirations and the reality of their academic performance, which raises questions about the adequacy of educational programs and identification of ELLs with disabilities.
Proficiency in writing increases opportunities in higher education, employment, and social relationships. Many students in the United States, however, are struggling writers. In particular, the writing performance of students with disabilities in secondary grades continues to lag behind grade level peers. The purpose of this article was to review writing interventions for high school students with disabilities to identify those practices that have been shown to be effective in supporting writing development. All studies were peer-reviewed, employed a single-case experimental design, and evaluated writing interventions used with students with disabilities in Grades 9 through 12. We used the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) single-case design standards (Kratochwill et al., 2010) to evaluate the effects of writing interventions in the 14 identified studies. Specific interventions included Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD), Expressive Writing™ (Direct Instruction), Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing, and pentop computers. Results indicated that only two SRSD programs and the pentop computer program demonstrated strong or moderate effects on written expression in studies that met WWC evidence standards with reservations.
One quality indicator of intervention research is the extent to which the intervention has a high degree of social validity, or practicality. In this study, I drew on Wolf’s framework for social validity and used qualitative methods to ascertain five middle schoolteachers’ perceptions of the social validity of System 44®—a phonics-based reading intervention for secondary students. Findings derived from teacher interviews and classroom observations conducted during the course of one school year indicate that the ways in which teachers make decisions about social validity are complex and predicated on the interaction of several factors related to an intervention’s goals, outcomes, and procedures. By using qualitative methods and applying Wolf’s framework to an academic intervention, I expand the social validity construct and delineate its sub-components.
This qualitative case study focuses on factors mediating an urban school’s enactment of Response to Intervention (RTI). Over one school year, we (a) observed weekly RTI meetings, (b) debriefed observations weekly, (c) interviewed RTI team members, and (d) examined procedural documents. Analyses included post-observation debriefing and coding fieldnotes and interview transcripts; categorical meaning and themes were coded recursively. Informed by critical policy studies research and theory, findings indicated limited supports and minimal technical understandings of RTI. Educators appeared to replicate pre-RTI special education eligibility determination processes, manifested in scripts about student diagnoses based on minimal "interventions" and deficit-laden representations of students/families. Findings highlight challenges with urban schools’ RTI enactment and justify future critical qualitative research regarding learning in schools shifting practice under policy directives. Although the study focuses on RTI as a case-in-point, findings have implications for future research that utilizes critical practice approaches to analyze ways local contexts mediate policy enactment.
Although teaching efficacy has been noted as an attribute of successful teachers of students from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds, special educators have not been represented in this research, nor have the influence of personal and professional factors on teacher efficacy been examined for this population. This descriptive, correlational survey research was conducted to investigate the influence of selected personal and professional variables on special educators’ culturally responsive teaching efficacy for serving exceptional CLD students. Participants (n = 344) from three urban school districts in the Southwest responded to an online survey. Statistically significant differences were found in respondents’ perceptions of self-efficacy as well as outcome expectancy by the perceived effectiveness of their teacher preparation in addressing diversity. Teachers’ language characteristics, instructional setting, certification in bilingual education/English as a second language, and perceived quality of professional preparation also emerged as significant predictors. Implications for future research are discussed.
Given the negative outcomes associated with suspension, scholars and practitioners are concerned with discipline disparities. This study explored patterns and predictors of suspension in a sample of 2,750 students with disabilities in 39 schools in a Midwestern district. Hierarchical generalized linear modeling demonstrated that disability type, gender, race/ethnicity, and free/reduced lunch status were significant predictors of suspension among students with disabilities. Adjusting for gender and race/ethnicity attenuated suspension risk associated with disability type, and adjusting for student-level socioeconomic variables attenuated risk associated with race/ethnicity, but significant disparities remained. School characteristics were not predictive of suspension risk, but their inclusion in the models was associated with increased risk of suspension among students with emotional disturbance. Results underscore the value of multilevel modeling when identifying predictors of suspension and the need to explore a wider variety of classroom and school factors that may account for inequitable discipline.
The Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS) is a universal screening instrument designed to identify students whose excessive problem behaviors put them at risk of the education disability category of emotional disturbance (ED). This article reports findings from three studies that address the reliability and validity of the EBS. Studies 1 and 2 examined the test–retest and inter-rater reliability of the EBS. Study 3 investigated the convergent validity of the EBS by comparing it to the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System. The results from these studies support the reliability and validity of the EBS as a universal screening instrument for identifying students who may be at risk of ED or those who may require a greater degree of monitoring, decision-making, formal assessment, or intervention to restore normal behavior functioning and prevent identification as ED. Implications, research limitations, and future research needs are discussed.
The study compared the effects of using commercially available and custom-made video prompts on the completion of cooking recipes by four high school age males with a diagnosis of autism. An adapted alternating treatments design with continuous baseline, comparison, final treatment, and best treatment condition was used to compare the two procedures. Gains were made by each participant when using both video procedures. However, results indicate that all students performed more steps independently correct when completing recipes with the custom-made video prompts during the comparison condition. During the best treatment condition, recipes initially prepared using the commercially available video prompts in the comparison condition were performed at criterion levels when completed with the custom-made videos prompts. Implications for use and development of commercial and customized video products with attention to the salient features of video prompts are presented.
This multiple baseline study investigated the effectiveness of text-based reading lessons for students with intellectual disability (ID). Three students were selected who had not responded well to explicit and systematic reading instruction. They were provided with individual instruction in daily 45-min sessions for 14 weeks (approximately 70 sessions). All three students increased the number of words read from baseline (ranging from 5 to 20 words correct) to the final intervention session (ranging from 40 to 75 words correct), though one student’s data were less conclusive due to growth during the baseline phase. Regression discontinuity revealed the intervention caused statistically significant growth. The intervention is promising given that students with ID who initially did not respond to systematic instruction improved their ability to sound out and unitize (i.e., read with automaticity) words.
In this article, we reviewed social validity in single-case research studies that focused on interventions for students who have either been identified as having, or as at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. This review focused on studies from four peer-reviewed journals known to publish single-case research with this population: the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, and Behavioral Disorders. We reviewed 22 studies published from January 2008 to November 2011 that met inclusion criteria. The purposes of this review were (a) to evaluate how researchers are addressing social validity as defined by Horner and colleagues (2005) and (b) to explore how single-case researchers are measuring social validity. Overall, results indicated that the research studies included in this review addressed socially important questions within typical contexts, but that most did not address social validity explicitly.
Point-of-view video modeling (POV), a variation of video-based modeling interventions, involves creating a video exemplar from a first-person perspective. The advantage is a significant reduction in extraneous stimuli, as well as increased efficiency in production. However, the lack of systematic analysis to evaluate differential impact on targeted outcomes for individuals with disabilities limits the identification of the population for whom POV is most appropriate, as well as the most efficacious implementation procedure. Through meta-analysis of single-subject studies using POV to improve targeted outcomes, this study identifies differential effects of participant characteristics, implementation procedures, and targeted outcomes. Results of the systematic search reveal that POV has only been implemented with individuals with developmental disabilities or an autism spectrum disorder. Analysis yielded an overall improvement rate difference (IRD) effect size of .78 (83.4% confidence interval [CI] = [.76, .80]). Furthermore, age, disability, and implementation variables moderate outcomes. Areas of future research and implications for practice are discussed.
This study examined the relationship between hours in general education and achievement in reading and mathematics for students with disabilities. The study population included more than 1,300 students between the ages of 6 and 9 years old within 180 school districts. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was utilized with the Pre-Elementary Education Longitudinal Study (PEELS) data set (Institute of Education Sciences). The relationship between hours in general education and achievement in reading and mathematics was explored while accounting for student- and district-level factors. Results suggest a strong positive relationship between the number of hours students spent in general education and achievement in mathematics and reading. Implications for policy and practice in special education are presented and discussed.
This article reports findings from a literature review on literacy instruction for adolescents with significant cognitive disabilities. Nineteen empirical studies published between 1975 and 2011 were included in the review and analyzed based on characteristics of interventions. The results were examined to determine whether the state of research in this area indicates a comprehensive approach to literacy for adolescents with significant cognitive disabilities. Results indicate that vocabulary instruction through sight word acquisition is still prevalent, instruction is not comprehensive, and instruction does not address recommendations from the field for adolescent literacy. However, innovative approaches to literacy instruction for this population are beginning to be explored. The current state of research on reading practices for adolescents with significant cognitive disabilities, implications for practice, and suggestions for new directions in research are discussed.
A statewide survey of coordinators of inclusive high school service-learning programs was conducted to validate elements, methods, and barriers to including students with and without disabilities in service-learning. Surveys were mailed to 655 service-learning coordinators; 190 (29%) returned a completed survey. Findings support the validity of the elements and methods. Respondents consistently rated the elements and methods higher in importance than actual use. Few barriers were identified although some individual respondents reported extreme barriers. Lack of money and time to co-plan were the greatest barriers shared across respondents. School size, presence of a service-learning graduation requirement, and inclusion of students with intellectual disability did not account for significant differences among service-learning coordinators.
As part of the validation process for alternate assessments, 39 classroom observations were conducted to gather data about current practices in providing academic instruction to students with significant intellectual disability. Using a standardized protocol, data were gathered using direct instructional observation, an Individualized Education Program review, and an analysis of student work. We found that teachers lacked age-appropriate materials, and most lessons and work samples required routine and recall responses. When teachers incorporated strategic or extended thinking activities into lessons, students were able to demonstrate their knowledge. The findings are suggested as a snapshot of current practices.
Researchers have expressed concern about implementation fidelity in intervention research but have not extended that concern to assessment fidelity, or the extent to which pre-/posttests are administered and interpreted as intended. When studying reading interventions, data gathering heavily influences the identification of students, the curricular components delivered, and the interpretation of outcomes. However, information on assessment fidelity is rarely reported. This study examined the fidelity with which individuals paid to be testers for research purposes were directly observed administering and interpreting reading assessments for middle school students. Of 589 testing packets, 45 (8% of the total) had to be removed from the data set for significant abnormalities and another 484 (91% of the remaining packets) had correctable errors only found in double scoring. Results indicate reading assessments require extensive training, highly structured protocols, and ongoing calibration to produce reliable and valid results useful in applied research.
There is a notable lack of manualized comprehensive school-based interventions (CSBIs) for children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASDs). This pilot study examined the feasibility and initial efficacy of a CSBI for 12 children with HFASDs, aged 6 to 9 years. Treatment included a 3-week summer preparation program followed by a 10-month CSBI, composed of social skills groups, therapeutic activities, face and voice emotion recognition instruction, an individual daily note, and parent training. Feasibility was supported in high levels of treatment fidelity and teacher- and parent-reported acceptability and satisfaction. Pre–post comparisons suggested that children significantly improved their knowledge of target social skills and ability to identify emotions in facial and vocal expressions. According to parent and teacher ratings, children displayed gains in their use of target social skills and broader social performance, as well as reductions in ASD-related features.