College marching bands are a large and visible part of American music education. Institutions of higher learning have benefited from the existence of marching bands, as they serve as a powerful recruitment tool and an essential public relations vehicle for music departments and universities. The benefit students may receive from marching band participation is influenced by a variety of social and educational factors. This article is a review of literature on the benefits of marching bands and band participation for universities and college students. The review is organized as follows: (a) brief introduction and methodology, (b) benefits for colleges and universities, (c) benefits for college students, (d) challenges for college students, and (e) summary and recommendations. This article presents scholarship on the possible benefits of marching bands for students and universities in an effort to aid recruitment and inform administrators of the value a marching band brings to their school.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of a peer mentorship program on students’ perceptions of comfort, skills obtained, and feelings of success while working with a peer with dissimilar abilities. The participants (N = 14), enrolled in choral ensemble classes, were divided into two groups: the peer mentors (n = 7), who were typically developing students, and the peer mentees (n = 7), who were students with disabilities who had an individualized education program. The researchers created a pretest–posttest survey, and all questions were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale. Peer mentee self-perceptions of success in the choral classroom revealed slight negative changes from the beginning to the end of the program. However, while some did not want to continue in the program for music skill acquisition, they all indicated a desire to remain in their peer pair for social reasons.
The purpose of this study was two-fold: (1) to examine the relationship between personality type and ensemble choice and (2) to examine the differences in personality across age and music experience in young adults. Participants (N = 137; 68 instrumentalists, 69 vocalists) completed a demographic survey and the Big Five Personality Inventory. Results of a multivariate analysis of covariance show significantly higher levels of Extroversion by vocalists compared to instrumentalists, F(135) = 5.71, p = .02, d = 0.44. However, mean personality scores by section show high levels of Extroversion in percussionists, similar to vocalists, suggesting that extroverted individuals may be more likely to choose percussion or voice as their primary instrument. These data have many implications for structuring curriculum, establishing learning environments, and facilitating teacher-student communications.
Much of what we know about music classes comes from observing students without disabilities; there is little empirical research that informs music education practices for students with disabilities in inclusive music settings. The purpose of this study was to systematically observe and describe opportunities for nine students with disabilities to engage in behaviors related to the objectives on their Individualized Education Programs and describe their peer interactions, on-task behaviors, and music participation. Students had multiple opportunities to practice Individualized Education Programs goals. Students were most often on-task and interacted with peers extemporaneously and in assigned groups. Opportunities for individual responses and music performances were rare but most often accurate. Results indicate that students’ opportunities to show what they know and can do are often controlled by the teacher, suggesting that music educators, music therapists, and special educators can collaborate to improve and plan for opportunities for students with disabilities.
Research concerning men working in predominantly female environments has suggested that stereotyping can occur when gender norms are violated, such as men teaching at the elementary school level. The present study investigated the presence and perspectives of male elementary school music teachers in specific geographical regions of the Northeastern United States. A qualitative analysis of six public school districts representing multiple states in the Northeastern United States revealed that women still hold a majority among elementary music teachers. Interviews were then conducted with three selected male elementary music teachers to determine if any of them felt discriminated or marginalized among their female colleagues. While these men did claim that their masculinity indeed caused various issues relating to male discrimination, all three felt content with their positions regardless of their gender identification.
The purpose of the study was to describe elementary music method choice and certification method choice overall and across the elementary music career cycle. Participants (N = 254) were categorized as Level I or Elementary Division in a southwestern music education association database. The questionnaire included 25 four-point Likert-type items that measured music curriculum alignment to given methods and agreement with statements concerning respondent school district curriculum, personal method practices, and motives concerning the pursuit of one or more method certifications. Gathered information was converted into descriptive statistics. Kodály and Orff were the method certifications of choice overall and across the elementary music career cycle. Perceptions and motives varied little across the career cycle. Conclusions include suggestions concerning professional development.
The purpose of this study was to describe the university vocal training and vocal health of music educators and music therapists. The participants (N = 426), music educators (n = 351) and music therapists (n = 75), completed a survey addressing demographics, vocal training, voice usage, and vocal health. Both groups reported singing at least 50% of the work day; moreover, music educators complained of vocal fatigue and hoarseness at the end of the week. Music educators expressed concern about their vocal health, due to the unique demands of music instruction and large classes. A majority of participants, particularly instrumental concentration majors, expressed a desire for more career-focused vocal training. Results suggest that additional university training in vocal health could help prevent vocal abuse and misuse among music educators and therapists; furthermore, music educators may be better qualified to promote healthy singing among developing voices.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the experiences of instrumental music teachers in Designing Arts Instruction, a 4-day professional development course in a large urban school district. Specifically, I was interested in which activities participants (a) found most relevant and applicable to their current teaching situation, (b) believed would most benefit student learning, and (c) believed would contribute most to their overall music teacher development. Multiple forms of data were collected including participants’ reflections, researcher-facilitator journal and field notes, and structured individual interviews. Curriculum development and rubric writing were relevant to participants’ teaching situations and also engaged teachers’ personal musicianship. Participants recognized creative activities as motivating for students. Collaboration emerged as the course feature that contributed most to participants’ overall development. Those who plan and facilitate professional development might consider including aspects that invite collaboration, deep thinking, engagement, and reflection, particularly within the context of teachers’ musicianship.
Reviews of literature on music preference may provide music educators with a variety of research on information, techniques, and methods to implement in the music classroom. Calls to widen the types of music used in curricula seem to underscore the importance of research exploring preference using music other than, and in addition to, Western art music. The present review of literature explores nonmusical factors, including external characteristics and listener characteristics, as well as musical factors contributing to decisions of musical preference related to popular and world music to aid educators in planning effective and meaningful music activities.
There is a long-standing belief in U.S. music education that students should learn music from other cultures. Research that incorporates elements of neuroscience, music, and culture can provide evidence teachers need to improve the design and implementation of multicultural music education curricula. The purpose of this short-form literature review is to discuss recent quantitative research in neuroscience, music, and culture to further the integration and application of neuroscientific evidence into the daily practices of music educators. This literature review includes three avenues of inquiry: (a) studies of infants’ musical perception, (b) studies from Finland highlighting the neuroplasticity of the brain, and (c) a series of experiments from the University of Washington investigating culture and the recall of music. Recommendations focus on four concepts: (a) uncovering innate musical potential, (b) developing a framework for understanding music, (c) teaching focused listening strategies, and (d) adjusting expectations in learning outcomes.
Classroom management is a common concern for teachers. Music teachers in particular experience unique behavior challenges because of large class sizes, uncommon pacing requirements, and performance-based outcomes. Positive behavior support is an evidence-based framework for preventing or eliminating challenging behaviors by teaching and reinforcing appropriate social skills. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT), a specific positive behavior support intervention involving social skills instruction, positive reinforcement, and group contingencies, has proven effective in elementary schools but has not been evaluated specifically in music classrooms. The present study sought to investigate the effectiveness of CW-FIT in increasing on-task behavior and teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios in a sixth-grade music classroom. A single-subject reversal (ABAB) design was used. Results indicated that student on-task behavior increased when CW-FIT was implemented. Teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios also improved. Results suggest the teacher and the students found CW-FIT valuable and enjoyable. Study limitations and implications are addressed.
The purpose of this study was to describe the perceptions of teachers, ensemble members, and outside observers when evaluating the effectiveness of rehearsals conducted with reduced amounts of verbal instruction. Preservice teachers led choral rehearsals employing Archibeque’s "rule of seven," wherein instructions were delivered in seven words or fewer. Immediately following the teaching session, participants responded to the question: "What was your perception of this assignment and what did you notice about teaching effectiveness?" Outside observers responded to the same prompt. Findings indicated that choral members preferred rehearsals with reduced verbal instruction because they were able to perform more, with fewer interruptions. The preservice teachers favored the opportunity to organize their thoughts and focus instruction, but they expressed frustration with feeling stifled in leading rehearsal. The outside observers approved of the rehearsal pacing but were concerned by the lack of specificity in instruction and feedback.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability and validity of using a motivation inventory with music students in upper-elementary, middle, and high school. We used the middle/high school version of the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory to survey 93 students in the 5th to 12th grades in one school. Our analysis revealed the inventory produced reliable and valid scores on the five MUSIC scales (MUSIC is an acronym for empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring). Findings provide empirical evidence to support the validity of the five-factor structure of the MUSIC Model of Motivation for music students. Thus, the inventory may be used by music teachers as a reliable means to assess students’ motivation-related perceptions. We provide several strategies that music teachers can consider in designing instruction to be consistent with each component of the MUSIC model, as well as possible implications.
The purpose of this study was to examine the structure and content of music student teaching seminars at 4-year, degree-granting institutions accredited by the National Association of Schools of Music across the United States. A secondary purpose was to determine how these seminars (a) addressed perceived needs of student teachers and beginning teachers when reflecting on their student teaching experience and (b) met those needs through course structure and content. Though variability existed in frequency and length, most seminars (n = 95, 77.86%) were taught in the music department. Participants (N = 205; 42.71% overall response rate) indicated that teacher responsibilities, job searching, and behavior management were the most frequently addressed topics in their seminars; creating résumés, lesson planning, and peer discussions represented the most common activities. Data suggest variability in both structure and content of seminars, as well as a discrepancy between perceived student teacher needs and seminar content.
This review of the literature examines the process of matching students with band instruments as presented in academic research journals and practitioner publications. While some directors may evaluate the potential impact of students’ physical characteristics such as lip size and shape, teeth and jaw structure, body build, and so forth, other sources have cited the importance of fine- and gross-motor coordination, aural skills acuity, music aptitude, timbre preference, motivation, personality, and environmental influences. A few empirical studies have suggested a positive impact on student achievement and retention when professional educators assist students in selecting instruments. Despite conflicting information, helping students match their gifts to specific instruments deserves careful study and more attention from those who assist students in selecting instruments. Motivation to play a particular instrument is a strong factor in predicting success and persistence. Some suggestions for possible approaches to clear up some of the ambiguity are provided.
The transition from the conceptually focused world of the student to the professionally pragmatic world of the teacher can be jarring and difficult. One of the more useful educational experiences for facilitating this transition is that of student teaching. This review of literature examines the personal relationships, expectations, reflective practice, and power structure inherent in the student-teaching experience in both general and music classroom contexts. These facets were selected due to their prevalence in the literature and their potential impact on stakeholders’ approaches toward student teachers. Aspects of cooperating teacher preparation in light of the highlighted areas are then discussed, with potential suggestions including communication concerns, possible cooperating teacher framework characteristics, and balancing the conflicting nature of both the student teacher and the university supervisor.
This study sought to describe the prevalence of Standards-based grading (SBG) among practicing music teachers and report the rationale teachers provided for or against its use. Participants were music educators (N = 96) responsible for grading students. Most participants (52.08%, n = 50) indicated that they were not familiar with SBG. Many participants (46.86%, n = 45) reported familiarity and reported using SBG completely or partially in practice. These participants provided definitions of SBG to validate their self-reports. Definitions were scored using a 4-point rubric. Some of the participants (n = 7) who said they were using SBG in their teaching provided definitions demonstrating no understanding of SBG. Therefore, these results indicate that 39.58% (n = 38) of the total participants (N = 96) were using SBG. Overwhelmingly, when asked to provide the reason(s) why they did not use SBG, teachers described lack of knowledge about SBG as the reason. The most prevalent rationale the teachers gave for using SBG was that teachers were required to do so.
This article is a review of research literature on the teaching of concepts in instrumental music education. It is organized in four parts (a) the value of concept teaching in large instrumental ensembles, (b) time spent teaching concepts during rehearsals, (c) approaches to concept teaching, and (d) implications for music education. Research has indicated that there is value to teaching conceptually. Time invested in teaching concepts has not been found to detract from performance goals; on the contrary, performance may be enhanced. Musical concepts may be taught via positive and negative instances of concepts, music terms and descriptions, modeling, and music literature. More research on concept teaching in instrumental music is warranted.
In the past 10 years, educating university musicians about hearing protection for long-term career stability and success has become more common, as has the adoption of hearing conservation programs. The purpose of this study was to explore preservice music teachers’ self-reported use of earplugs. Undergraduate preservice teachers (N = 129) were surveyed and results revealed that 21% (n = 27) wore earplugs sometimes while practicing, rehearsing, performing, or teaching. While participants recognized that noise-induced hearing loss was preventable (n = 124, 96%), 88% were seldom or sometimes concerned about their own hearing (M = 2.39, SD = 1.05). Most participants believed that surgery and hearing aids were ways to correct noise-induced hearing loss (n = 100, 78%). However, contrary to the preservice teachers’ beliefs, no viable correction is currently available for noise-induced hearing loss. Implications for further education are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to identify teacher opinion of piano use, the amount of piano use, and current purposes for pianos in elementary general music classrooms. A geographically diverse sample of general music teachers (N = 189) completed a piano use survey. The data indicated that teachers felt piano was an important part of elementary music and that the piano should be used for accompaniment more than any other purpose. Pianos were most commonly used on a weekly basis. Teachers who began piano lessons at a younger age also tended to use more piano in their classrooms. Qualitative statements made about piano use were positive and enthusiastic. This study provides direction for future research in the investigation of relationships between amount of piano use and teacher variables, and the amount of a cappella singing in the elementary classroom.
This study investigated collegiate voice instructors’ approaches for teaching practice strategies to their students. Voice instructors (N = 46) from accredited institutions in three Midwestern states participated in a researcher-designed survey, which described (a) the types of practice strategies addressed in lessons, (b) the methods used for assessment, and (c) the value instructors placed on specific practice strategies. Respondents typically used logs and journals to keep track of students’ progress. Score study was valued and used as a practice strategy most often by respondents, but other strategies such as repetition to improve accuracy and focusing on the most difficult sections of the music were also rated highly. Findings suggest that although these collegiate voice instructors seemed to be incorporating a variety of assessment and teaching strategies into their studio instruction, no consistent, formulaic method for teaching college singers to practice could be identified.
This review of literature is a synthesis of research surrounding the production of superior choral performance. Findings described in this review suggest director characteristics, rehearsal techniques, singer behaviors, and auxiliary supports that are important to, or common in, the creation of meritorious performance. Effects of instructional methodologies on performance achievement and differences among directors of exceptional choirs are also presented. Although replication of the studies synthesized in this review is necessary for a more complete understanding of how quality performance is produced, music educators may want to compare and contrast their personal characteristics and rehearsal techniques with those of the directors of outstanding performance described in this review. Suggestions for future research are included.
Many of the characteristics of dyslexia—such as difficulties with decoding written symbols, phonemic awareness, physical coordination, and readable handwriting—may adversely affect music learning. Despite challenges, individuals with dyslexia can succeed in music. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of five professional musicians with dyslexia as they reflect on their experiences learning music. Answers to the following research questions were sought: (a) What are the perceived abilities and challenges that the participants believe they have developed in music because of their diagnoses of dyslexia? (b) What strategies have the participants used to overcome the challenges associated with dyslexia? and (c) What recommendations did the participants have for adults to assist students with dyslexia who are enrolled in school music programs? The findings in this study included support for multisensory teaching, isolating musical components, learning of jazz and popular music, using technology, and small group instruction.
The purpose of this study was to determine the types and frequency of music and special education workshops held at state music educators association (MEA) conferences. Specifically, the researchers sought to determine the following within the past 10 years: (a) states that offered music and special education workshops at their MEA conferences, (b) frequency of music and special education workshops at each MEA conference, (c) frequency of music and special education workshops by music classroom type or IDEA disability category, and (d) significant differences in frequency of music and special education workshops between state MEAs with and state MEAs without a Special Learners Chair. There were 226 conference programs obtained from 2004 to 2013, of which 33 states (73%) provided at least one conference program and 12 states (27%) provided all programs. Within the provided conference programs, there were 300 music and special education sessions listed. Furthermore, most sessions were those that gave special education information without being specific to an individual music area or disability (n = 149 or 50%). When the data were analyzed by music area or individual disability category, sessions pertaining to general music (n = 43.5 or 14.5%) or autism (n = 36.5 or 12%) were most frequent. Furthermore, results are discussed within the article.
Music plays an important part in the transitional period of life for adolescents as they define their personal and social identities and build their preferences for music. Recent neuroscientific research into the adolescent brain has produced developmental models that work to explain the neural reasons behind teenage behavior and development. These neural responses and developments of the brain provide some understanding for many of the social, as well as musical, choices that teenagers make during this period. By examining processes in the adolescent brain, we can begin to understand some reasons behind choices for music preference, which can aid music educators in determining the best ways to present music to teenagers in the music classroom. The purpose of this article is to present a review of previous research in adolescent brain development, music preference, and the application of such research in the musical education of adolescent students.
Music teachers can empower students with control over their own music ability development by helping them foster positive self-efficacy beliefs. This article reviews general education and music research concerning Bandura’s theoretical four sources of self-efficacy (enactive mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal/social persuasion, and physiological and affective states), in order to guide music teachers in determining effective methods and approaches to help students develop a sense of music self-efficacy and subsequent music achievement. A brief summary of each self-efficacy source category is provided, along with a discussion of the means whereby self-efficacy perceptions can be developed within both general education and music learning environments. Each of these four sections reviews research and simultaneously provides corresponding practical suggestions for educators.
The purpose of this review of literature was to identify research findings for designing assessments in singing accuracy. The aim was to specify the test construction variables that directly affect test performance to guide future design in singing accuracy assessment for research and classroom uses. Three pitch-matching tasks—single pitch, interval pitch, and patterns—plus song-singing have each been shown to be discriminators of singing accuracy. Teachers and researchers should consider incorporating more than one task type when assessing children, since performance on one song or pitch-matching task cannot easily be generalized to others. Item-level and task-level difficulty must be taken into consideration when designing singing tests. In addition to task type, the variables of singing voice development, contextual presentation, model characteristics, range, and text must be a part of a priori decision making.
The findings and discussions related to cultural bias in testing have in no way been unanimous. However, the considerations of this area of inquiry may possess meaningful implications for educators of any subject. In this review of literature, I describe the issues, research, and arguments surrounding cultural bias in testing and discuss implications for the field of music education. A working description of cultural bias in testing for the purpose of this article involves the notions of (a) significantly different results for definable subgroups from apparently similar ability levels and (b) issues with the fair and equitable interpretation and use of test results. Applications of general education scholarship to music education settings include investigations and perceptions of cultural bias as well as suggestions for improved fairness consisting of addressing group differences, offering diverse ways to perform, discouraging misuse, and accommodating for differences.
The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the nature of North Dakota elementary classroom teachers’ (NDECT) music integration in the general classroom. The majority of NDECTs integrated music with: the subjects of Language Arts (62.01%), Mathematics (55.00%), and Physical Education (50.89%); the settings of Group Work Time (64.29%), Morning Carpet Time/Welcome Time (58.54%), Free Time (58.13%), and Individual Work Time (55.43%); and Math Skills (62.01%) and Everyday Skills (53.99%). Listening to Music (89.13%) and Singing Songs (72.83%) were the most frequently reported musical activities. Significant differences were found between music integration into core subjects (i.e., mathematics, language arts, science, social studies/history) and other variables (i.e., gender, grade level taught, music training, collaboration with the music teacher). The subjects provided reasons (e.g., not knowing where to include it into an already-full day) as to why they included music only rarely in their classrooms.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the existence and impact of budgetary cutbacks to music teaching positions and district funding in three Midwestern states, namely Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri. The results revealed cuts to staffing and district funding of music programs without a reduction in student enrollments in 2011–2012 following a downward trend the previous 3 to 4 years. Increases in teaching responsibilities and student fees were also trends. Based on collected data, staffing and budgetary reductions will continue to increase teacher workloads. Recommendations are provided for music education advocates, music teacher education programs, and state music education organizations to adapt to changing fiscal realities and needs of schools.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of vocal register use and age on the perceived vocal health of male elementary music teachers. Participants (N = 160) consisted of male elementary music teachers from two neighboring states in the south-central region of the United States. Participants responded to various demographic questions and completed the Singing Voice Handicap Index–10. To examine the possible effects of vocal register use and age on the participants’ vocal health, a two-way, between-subjects analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. Vocal register use and age served as the independent variables with the Singing Voice Handicap Index–10 as the dependent variable. Results from the ANOVA revealed no main effect for vocal register use, F(2,147) = 2.20, p = .89, 2 = .03, or age, F(3,147) = 0.98, p = .41, 2 = .02. No statistically significant interaction was found.
Based on the needs for viable melodic dictation strategies and thoughtful approaches to teaching prerequisite skills, the central research question guiding this qualitative study was as follows: What strategies do dictation takers describe having used on successfully completing a standard melodic dictation? Six sophomore music majors, recommended by their theory professors as consistently successful in melodic dictation, completed two cycles each of a standard dictation coupled with a follow-up reflection interview focused on strategies. Three overarching themes emerged from data analysis: (1) Participants are highly skilled at directing their attention during dictation, (2) participants prioritize tasks carefully during each listening of a dictation, and (3) participants skillfully coordinate a variety of musical and problem-solving skills to complete dictations successfully.