There is widespread agreement that one-size-fits-all professional development (PD) has limited potential to foster teacher learning and that PD should be ‘responsive’ to the demands of teachers with different profiles. The purpose of this exploratory study was to analyze the PD motivations, needs, and preferences of Singapore primary school music teachers according to their level of specialization in music education. This variable has been relatively unexplored within the field of music-teacher PD. A nationwide survey was run to collect the data. Participants were 286 primary music teachers (about 40% of the entire population), who were split into three groups based on their music education background (Major = 113, Minor = 64, Generalist = 109). Findings indicated that the three groups of teachers had different motivation levels to participate in music-specific PD (e.g., generalists being the least motivated), various needs for further training (e.g., music education majors being the most interested in improving their music content knowledge), and different preferences regarding PD providers and learning formats (e.g., generalists preferring to learn from other fellow colleagues within informal settings). We concluded that the level of specialization in music education plays a major role in determining teachers’ PD motivations, needs, and preferences. This study has the potential to inform the design of more responsive PD initiatives.
This study evaluates the influence of cultural and personal aspects of authenticity on the cognitive elaboration of music. Cognitive elaboration of music is comprised of a recipient’s subjective theories about and aesthetical evaluation of (a piece of) music. Subjective theories are based on information from different sources including oneself and the media. They can, for example, be used to explain the liking and perceived aesthetics of a piece of music. We suggest a theoretical model of the positive effects of authenticity on subjective theories and aesthetical evaluation. The model was tested in an online experiment with a randomized 2 x 2 between-subjects design, with cultural authenticity (high vs. low) and personal authenticity (high vs. low) as experimental factors. The levels of authenticity were manipulated in three musical excerpts and musicians’ images induced through album reviews of fictitious bands. Cognitive elaboration was measured by number of ideas related to the music whereas aesthetical evaluation of the music was measured by ratings of liking of the music. A sample of 492 subjects participated. Results indicate a positive effect of cultural authenticity on the function- and affect-based aspect of aesthetical evaluation. The data did not support a positive effect of authenticity on subjective theories.
This article examines how musicians use recordings as learning resources in preparing for performance. While previous research has partially acknowledged the contribution of external factors to self-regulated learning, the specific impact of recordings on performers’ approaches to practising remains largely uncharted. A survey was designed to assess the use and importance of recordings on musicians’ listening and practising behaviours, their preferences when choosing recordings, and the type of influence exerted by recordings over self-regulatory processes. Respondents (N = 204) completed an online survey, and the data were analysed according to level of expertise: advanced music students (n = 147) and professional musicians (n = 57). The results show clear differences between students and professionals in the frequency of use and level of reliance on recordings, with students consistently exhibiting a greater preference for these resources. Students were more likely to listen to recordings and, consequently, change aspects of their interpretations in the early stages of practising. Additionally, students were influenced by other people’s recommendations, especially their teachers’, and by other performers’ reputations when choosing recordings. The need to develop a distinct style had a positive influence on students’ practising and performing habits. The study shows that listening to recordings forms an integral part of self-regulated learning activities and contributes to musicians’ development by increasing musical knowledge and stylistic awareness.
The aim of this study was to correlate musical aptitude scores derived from two tests based on the same structural model for musical aptitude in a sample of 9- to 13-year-old children. We controlled for the influences of socioeconomic status (SES; measured by parents’ education), the amount of music lessons, and general cognitive abilities (i.e., IQ). The sample comprised 89 (46 girls) 9- to 13-year-old children. We applied two different tests by Edwin Gordon: Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA) and Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA) to measure musical aptitude. As control variables, IQ, socioeconomic status, and amount of music training were assessed. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that the total score of the IMMA together with the control variables could not predict the total score of the AMMA. Furthermore, regression models for each of the subtests were also not significant. With respect to the control variables, we revealed an association between the IMMA and socioeconomic status as well as amount of music training. We conclude that even tests that are based on the same structural model of musical aptitude were not associated significantly. This might indicate problems of validity. Additionally, it seems to be difficult to assess musical aptitude independently of influences from music training and SES. Ultimately, this may support the notion that we still need valid musical aptitude tests for this particular age group.
Previous research suggests that music listening influences individual affective responses. However, there is scant research examining how social factors might interact to influence subjective affective responses to music. This study investigates the effects of social feedback and social context on subjective affective responses to music. In a between-subjects experiment, participants (N = 120) listened to unfamiliar music from various genres either alone or with another participant. For each musical example, participants received positive and negative social feedback, derived from a pilot study, or factual album information. After listening to each musical example and reading the provided social feedback or album information, participants reported their subjective valence, arousal, subjective affective intensity, concentration, music liking and familiarity. There was no effect of social feedback on subjective valence responses. Positive and negative social feedback influenced subjective arousal responses positively and negatively, respectively. Subjective affective intensity was not influenced by social feedback. Social context did not influence subjective affective responses to the musical examples. Lower concentration was reported in social listening conditions compared to solitary conditions. Greater familiarity with the musical examples was reported when social feedback was provided. The findings of the present study suggest that social feedback can influence particular affective responses to, and familiarity with, music. However, social listening might reduce concentration, especially in the absence of social feedback. These findings highlight issues warranting consideration for how music is affectively experienced in everyday life, as well as purposely used in varied contexts.
This article explores how music is employed in the service of nationalist ideas by two Caucasian peoples: the Azeris and the Armenians. The small-scale case study reported here focuses on a folk song that is popular in both nations (known respectively as Sari Gelin/Sari Aghjik) and on its reception in social media. The paper shows that doctrinal, national myths cultivated in Armenia and Azerbaijan are remarkably similar and have a stronghold in the mindset of the respective nations on an everyday level. Individuals from both nations may include certain desired elements in their respective cultures or exclude certain unwanted elements that reveal the similarities between the two. Both countries are characterised by semi-totalitarian regimes in which a state-financed official media is under the control of an oligarchy or the government. As this makes social media one of the very few places for free discourse, elements of peace-building between countries can also be found. Yet even here, on a micro level, social media reflects national myths that are common to these two nations.
Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify and/or produce specific music notes without a reference tone from the Western tonal system. Functional imaging studies show that AP is subserved by a network of interconnected neural structures including the left posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex (DLFC), the bilateral planum temporale (PT), and other brain regions. Neurophysiological studies show that AP possessors do not always require context updating during pitch identification due to possible "tonal templates", and that AP appears to emerge at a late processing stage that is associated with multiple cognitive strategies and is facilitated by music training at early ages. Morphometry studies show decreased cortical thickness and gray matter concentration among those with AP, which may reflect increased efficiency of AP skill. Graph theoretical analyses of cortical thickness covariations show involvement of higher-order auditory processing, working memory, and semantic memory processes. Diffusion tensor imaging studies provide evidence for a neural pathway between the left posterior DLFC and the left PT, which establishes retrieval and manipulation of verbal-tonal associations. Compared to AP musicians, quasi-AP (QAP) musicians have an extensive right hemisphere network implicated in auditory working memory and show the bilateral structural characteristics of PT morphometry. Future research should confirm the definition of PT boundary and the role of (bi)lateralization of PT in AP ability, develop a standard AP test, identify genetic bases of AP, and describe relations between AP, tonal languages, and associated neural functions and structures among non-musicians with AP ability.
The purpose of the present study was to test an adapted model of self-regulated learning (Zimmerman, 1989) in the context of higher music education (n = 204). The following four hypotheses were tested: 1) Forethought phase constructs such as goal setting, self-efficacy, and time management were hypothesized to positively predict the use of psychological skills (i.e., self-observation, arousal-regulation, imagery, concentration, and self-control); 2) The use of psychological skills was expected to predict self-reflection phase constructs such as coping and perception of progress; 3) The links from the forethought phase to the reflection phase of the model were predicted to be indirect through psychological skills; 4) Self-reflection phase constructs were expected to positively predict forethought phase constructs. Applying Structural Equation Modeling, hypotheses 1 and 2 were partly supported. Regarding hypothesis 3, goal setting was indirectly positively linked to coping and perception of progress through self-observation and self-control. Self-efficacy was indirectly positively linked to coping through arousal-regulation. A follow-up multiple regression analysis was conducted in regard to hypothesis 4. The self-reflection phase constructs positively predicted forethought phase activities. Moreover, the study verified adaptive cyclical learning in the music students who were self-regulated learners.
Music similarity is a multidimensional concept to which so-called "sub-similarities", such as timbre and rhythm similarity, contribute. In this study, two models are presented: one for timbre similarity, and one for rhythm similarity. The musical domain for which the models were established is Electronic Dance Music (EDM). The models extract feature values from segments of audio and calculate a distance between two segments based on their feature vectors. The models are evaluated on perceptual data using linear regression. The accuracy of the rhythm similarity model reaches an empirically established upper bound to model performance. The accuracy of the timbre model is moderate, possibly due to insufficient data. From the selection of features and their weights resulting from the regression analysis, periodicity of rhythmic elements turned out to be the most important feature group for rhythm similarity in EDM.
The relationship between music training and executive functions has remained inconsistent in previous studies, possibly due to methodological limitations. This study aims to investigate cognitive inhibitory control in children (9–12 years old) with and without musical training, while carefully considering confounding variables. To assess executive functions, the Simon task was used, measuring reaction times (RTs) and error rates on congruent and incongruent trials. Information on important variables such as bilingualism, socio-economic status (SES), music pedagogy and amount of musical training was collected through a parental questionnaire. Furthermore, verbal and non-verbal intelligence were assessed with validated tests to consider their effects as well. The results showed that the samples did not significantly differ in background variables. The analysis of the RT data on the Simon task revealed a significant group x congruency interaction, such that musically trained children showed a reduced magnitude of the congruency effect (RTs on incongruent trials – RTs on congruent trials) compared to non-musicians. To conclude, music training seems to be associated with enhanced cognitive inhibitory control in well-matched samples.
Charles Koechlin’s Traité de l’orchestration ascribes different dimensions to timbre than those usually discussed in multidimensional scaling studies: "volume" or grosseur, related to extensity (the sound’s perceived size), and intensity, related to loudness. Koechlin also provides volume rankings for orchestral instruments in different registers. Studies show that humans, as well as several animal species, perceive extensity for many sound sources, but none has demonstrated its relevance for musical instruments from different families. To test extensity, samples of seven orchestral instruments equalized in pitch, but not in loudness, were used. Task 1 required participants to order eight sets of samples on a largeness (grosseur) scale from "less large" (moins gros) to "larger" (plus gros). Task 2 required them to quantify the sounds’ largeness compared to a reference sample on a ratio scale. Both studies show that participants share a common extensity perception for instrument timbres of different families that is very similar to Koechlin’s proposed scale. This perception seems to be related to spectral shape and particularly to acoustic energy in the lower frequencies. Perception of this attribute is unrelated to musical training, native language, and the presence of minor hearing loss, which suggests that extensity could be a universal attribute of timbre perception that is useful in orchestration practice and theory.
Musical engagement is influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. Here, we explored non-genetic influences on musical engagement by performing semi-structured interviews of 10 Swedish monozygotic twin pairs that were highly discordant for piano practicing. The interviews were organized into five sections – (i) perceived reasons for the discordance; (ii) childhood differences in specific music related variables; (iii) strong memories of music; (iv) the perceived meaning of music in life and for health; and (v) language interests – and analyzed using response categorization. The playing twins from an early age found music more interesting and enjoyable than their co-twins and also gave richer and more elaborate descriptions of the meaning of music in life, in several cases emphasizing that music was important for their personal identity. In line with this, an analysis of previously collected web questionnaire data showed that the playing twins had a significantly higher openness to experience and proneness to experience flow during musical activities. In contrast, the twins reported essentially no within-pair differences in the musical engagement of their peers, parental support, music teacher, ensemble playing, public performances, and their interest and aptitude for languages. The interviews gave no indication that the differences in musical engagement were caused by systematic environmental influences that were consistent across twin pairs. Rather, the respondents presented a wide range of different explanations for their discordance in musical activity, suggesting that the remaining influences on musical engagement, when genetics and family environment are controlled for, may be highly individual and idiosyncratic.
Recent technological innovations have facilitated widespread illegal downloading of recorded music. While this points towards a decreased willingness to pay for music, the increase in the popularity of live music suggests otherwise. This is especially so when taking into account the rising cost of concert tickets, likely the result of reduced recorded music revenues. In the present study, a consideration of the unique motivations of why music fans decide on whether or not to attend live concerts is of interest. Drawing from a sample of 249 participants (55.02% female) with a mean age of 26.49, an open-ended questionnaire was analysed thematically with four key themes defined: Experience, Engagement, Novelty and Practical. The results highlight that participants want to "be there", to be a part of something unique and special, sharing the experience with likeminded others. Other social dimensions such as the use of live music events as a means to demonstrate fan worship were also found. The unknown, novel aspects of live music were key motivators, such as hearing new material and watching support bands. Notably, price was not a contributing factor when choosing to attend a concert, suggesting that live music offers fans something special that they are more than willing to pay for.
Previous research suggests that singing in a choir as an older adult is associated with better quality of life (QOL). However, the degree to which sociodemographic variables and level of engagement in hobbies contribute to this relationship is largely unknown. The aim of the study was to compare quality of life (QOL) of older adult choir singers with a matched sample of older adults from the general population in Finland, taking into consideration sociodemographic variables, satisfaction with health, and level of engagement in hobbies. Case-control methods were used to match a sample of 109 older adult singers with a sample of 307 older adults from the general population. Tobit regression analysis with sociodemographic covariates was used to explore observed group differences in QOL as measured by two WHOQOL-Bref domains (psychological and physical). Probit regression analysis was used to examine the effect of sociodemographic variables and engagement in hobbies and on overall QOL and satisfaction with health. As expected, sociodemographic variables were strongly associated with physical and psychological QOL. After controlling for sociodemographic variables, the older choir singers reported significantly higher ratings on physical QOL, but not psychological QOL, compared to matched controls. Additional adjustment for satisfaction with health attenuated the results. When considering the level of engagement in hobbies, older adult choir singers reported significantly higher overall QOL and satisfaction with health when compared to controls who were either actively engaged in hobbies or not active in hobbies. These results suggest that singing in a choir as an older adult may promote well-being, even after accounting for sociodemographic variables and level of engagement in hobbies.
Although researchers have investigated parent perceptions of family-based group music therapy sessions for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), no researcher has examined parent perceptions of individual music therapy sessions for children with ASD in a university-based clinic. The purpose of this study was to understand parent perceptions of individual music therapy sessions in an on-campus university clinic for children with ASD. Research questions included: (a) How do parents of children with ASD perceive music therapy in an on-campus clinic? (b) How might parents differentiate music therapy from other treatments their child may be receiving? Four mothers of children with ASD receiving music therapy participated separately in semi-structured interviews. Using an inductive approach to thematic analysis, the authors identified and established code categories and themes during repeated readings of the data. Parents perceived music therapy to be a meaningful treatment for their children with ASD and five themes emerged: 1) music therapy is a unique and enjoyable multisensory approach that engages and motivates their children and distinguishes itself from other therapies 2) working with music therapy students is beneficial for children with ASD as it provides a change of routine and fosters flexibility; 3) the collaborative approach benefits all aspects of treatment and promotes rapport and alliance; 4) gains and progress resultant of music therapy generalize to other settings; 5) parents independently implement techniques used in music therapy in other settings. Implications for clinical practice and suggestions for future research are provided.
It is of fundamental importance for radio broadcasting companies that their listeners do not turn off the radio or switch to another station. Audiences continue listening if they like the program – especially the music. This positive appraisal can be explained by the concept of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975), which illustrates how the right balance between the challenge of completing a task and the skill of the individual can lead to a particularly fulfilling mental state. We therefore conducted two 2 x 2 between-subjects experiments in cooperation with a major German broadcasting company in which we varied the complexity and familiarity of a 1-hour prime time radio program. In Study 1 we examined the effects of Adult Contemporary radio programs on a sample of the appropriate target group (120 participants, 51% female, 30 to 39 years old), while in Study 2, equivalent Contemporary Hit radio programs were evaluated by that genre’s younger target group (217 participants, 49% female, 14 to 31 years old). We found that, dependent on the musical skill or listening modes of the recipients, the complexity of the music programs could be associated with higher or lower flow experiences, which in turn had an influence on positive listener appraisal.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of repeated attempts at singing accuracy tasks. Test-retest reliability of singing accuracy was examined in a second administration of the test. A secondary purpose was to analyze individual variability in children’s singing accuracy. Test stimuli were designed using five attempts each at a single pitch, interval, and four-note pattern, and song singing. Children aged 6–11 were given the one-on-one singing accuracy test, and an identical form of the test was administered again within 1–6 weeks. Pitch matching items were scored by measuring the deviation in Hertz from the stimuli. The song singing item was scored by singing teachers using an 8-point scale with acceptable inter-rater reliability (r = .86). Participants’ individual best attempt out of five was equally distributed, with overall performance increasing across subsequent attempts measured in signed cent deviation. A repeated-measures ANOVA with the task type (single, interval, and pattern) and attempt (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) as the within-subjects variables indicated no main effect for task type (p = .129), but a significant main effect for attempt (p < .001,
The important role of symmetry perception in the visual domain has been well documented in a large number of studies. Less clear, however, is its effect and potential role as a Gestalt grouping principle in the audio domain. We investigated the perceptibility of melodic symmetry using a series of algorithmically generated sonifications. Twenty-eight naïve participants were presented with a series of nine symmetrical sonifications, nine partially symmetrical sonifications (with approximately half of the mirrored elements changed), and nine asymmetrical sonifications. The participants were asked to identify the sonifications as belonging to one of those three categories. The sonifications utilized Karplus-Strong string synthesis and had a duration between 500 and 8,000 ms. The sonifications were presented three times each in order to check for participants’ consistency. Although participants tested far closer to chance level than perfect accuracy, we observed large effect sizes on measures of both accuracy and consistency. We found an effect of the number of tones in a melody on accuracy, with sonifications containing more tones being more difficult to attribute to the correct category. Sonifications with shorter duration and a faster tempo were also found to be more difficult to attribute accurately, indicating some minimum duration of the melody as well as the individual tones constituting the melody. We also found evidence of a significant effect of age on participants’ consistency, with older listeners performing more consistently.
Anger perception in music was investigated to determine if this emotion is cross-culturally decoded. A literature review of studies which investigated anger cross-culturally revealed variance between encoders and decoders. In an attempt to explain this variance, these data were examined using existing cross-cultural theories in music psychology, but each was poor in explaining some of the variance observed. For example, none were able to explain explicitly why anger expressed in Japanese music was poorly decoded by Indian, Japanese, and Swedish listeners. New interpretations of the published data were conducted through Hofstede’s cross-cultural dimensions theory and the theory of musical fit. Building on these theories, the Stereotype Theory of Emotion in Music (STEM) was proposed. According to STEM, listeners filter the emotion they perceive according to stereotypes of the encoding culture. For example, Japanese culture is stereotyped as an anger-reticent culture, explaining the low anger decoder ratings for ‘anger-encoded’ music. STEM suggests that anger perception is culturally influenced by a stereotyping process. The theory predicts that anger will be perceived if the decoding culture has no stereotype associated with the culture the music is believed to be from, leaving the music free to be interpreted through psychophysical or culture-specific cues. STEM presents a new way forward in understanding the cognitive processing of emotion in music.
Recent models of musical motivation have recognised the complex interactions which occur between environmental (cultural, institutional, familial, educational) and internal factors (cognition and affect) in enhancing or reducing motivation. Much previous research has been small scale and not taken account of long term musical aspirations. This article aims to address these issues exploring changes in motivation as expertise develops with a large sample of learners. A total of 3,325 young musicians, aged 6–19 playing a wide range of instruments participated. They represented nine levels of expertise ranging from beginner to higher education conservatoire entry level. Level of expertise was established in terms of the most recent graded independent instrumental examination taken. They were asked to respond to a series of statements on a 7-point Likert scale. The statements focused on well-established elements of motivation including: self-beliefs; enjoyment of musical activities; enjoyment of performance; level of support received from parents, friends and teachers; attitudes towards playing an instrument and perceptions of its value; and beliefs about the importance of musical ability. Participants were also asked to respond to statements about their long term musical aspirations. An exploratory factor analysis provided the basis for the development of a motivational scale which included five sub-scales: social support and affirmation; social life and the value of playing an instrument; enjoyment of performing; self-belief in musical ability; and enjoyment of instrumental musical activities. There were linear trends for each of the five sub-scales in relation to level of expertise with the exception of social support and affirmation. The five sub-scales collectively predicted a composite score relating to aspirations with a multiple R of .64.
Mental-spatial representations are often used for processing quantities and magnitudes such as numbers or pitch. The present study investigates whether the active creation of associations between space and pitch magnitude leads to a better estimation of the distances between pitches (musical intervals). Non-musicians performed an aurally presented comparison task in which musical intervals had to be estimated both before and after a training phase. Experiment 1 shows that the experimental group participants who were given the opportunity to establish associations between space and pitch (by means of spatial visualizations presented during training) improved significantly regarding their skill of estimating musical intervals compared with a control group without exposure to spatial visualizations during training. Experiment 2 replicated these findings, and a supplementary experimental group showed that the establishment of these associations is hindered when, additionally to pitch, task-irrelevant information about the point in time at which a tone is played during a trial, is also presented spatially during training (which does not decrease performance in training). We found that explicitly creating associations between space and pitch leads to a better estimation of the size of musical intervals, and we conclude that using analogies between space and pitch, e.g., in aural training in music education, is an efficient way to train the perception of pitch distances between musical notes.
The impression has formed in the literature dealing with Darwin’s life and achievement that he was himself unmusical, and that his theories have offered little help in understanding or valuing the role of music in human society. This article draws on biographical information relating to Darwin’s family and household to illustrate that he was in fact surrounded by music throughout his life. While Darwin’s deterioration in health may have reduced his ability to appreciate music in later life, he was clearly much involved in music as a young man. He also employed music in several of his experiments in animal behaviour, involving members of his family as co-researchers. A close reading of The Descent of Man that forms the central focus of this article illustrates the extent to which, throughout the book, Darwin made reference to musical behaviours in defining and illustrating his themes of natural and sexual selection. Ensuing correspondence with his sons consulted in the Darwin Archive at Cambridge University Library conveys the difficulty he had in dealing fully with music as a human capacity in its own right. However, far from his having little to say about music, Darwin’s theories of natural and sexual selection robustly define the research agenda for exploring the purpose of music and its relation to language: a project that recent developments in neurology, anthropology and linguistics have begun to reveal in a new light.
Tonal affinity is the perceived goodness of fit of successive tones. It is important because a preference for certain intervals over others would likely influence preferences for, and prevalences of, "higher-order" musical structures such as scales and chord progressions. We hypothesize that two psychoacoustic (spectral) factors—harmonicity and spectral pitch similarity—have an impact on affinity. The harmonicity of a single tone is the extent to which its partials (frequency components) correspond to those of a harmonic complex tone (whose partials are a multiple of a single fundamental frequency). The spectral pitch similarity of two tones is the extent to which they have partials with corresponding, or close, frequencies. To ascertain the unique effect sizes of harmonicity and spectral pitch similarity, we constructed a computational model to numerically quantify them. The model was tested against data obtained from 44 participants who ranked the overall affinity of tones in melodies played in a variety of tunings (some microtonal) with a variety of spectra (some inharmonic). The data indicate the two factors have similar, but independent, effect sizes: in combination, they explain a sizeable portion of the variance in the data (the model-data squared correlation is r2 = .64). Neither harmonicity nor spectral pitch similarity require prior knowledge of musical structure, so they provide a potentially universal bottom-up explanation for tonal affinity. We show how the model—as optimized to these data—can explain scale structures commonly found in music, both historical and contemporary, and we discuss its implications for experimental microtonal and spectral music.
A venerable rule of traditional Western part writing is the so-called Direct Octaves Rule (also known as Hidden or Exposed octaves), whereby similar pitch motion (i.e., two or more voices moving in the same direction) to a perfect octave should be avoided unless step motion is used. A number of interpretations have been offered as to why musicians might follow this rule. A traditional account (Fux, 1725/1966) exhibits several inconsistencies. A modern interpretation based on auditory scene analysis appears to have merit. However, this interpretation has yet to be tested empirically. Three experiments test the scene-analysis account using numerosity judgments for complex chords as the dependent measure. In Experiment 1, musician listeners show decreasing accuracy in numerosity judgments when an octave is present in the sonority – as predicted. In experiments 2 and 3, chords were preceded by a single neighboring or distant tone. It was hypothesized that neighboring primes would increase the accuracy of numerosity judgments for octave-containing chords more than distant primes – consistent with the Direct Octaves rule. However, no such facilitation was observed. Nevertheless, a post-hoc test showed improved accuracy when the octave was approached by step motion in highest voice compared with step-approach to the lowest voice. This latter finding is consistent with the most restrictive formulations of the direct octaves rule.
Show elements are indispensable in live rock performances and have an impact on the recipients’ performance evaluations. We conducted two studies on the persuasive function of show elements (e.g., multi-finger tapping, over-under techniques, or playing with the tongue) in rock guitar solo performances. In Experiment 1 professional guitarists (N = 12) classified performance features, such as show elements, playing difficulty in terms of academic standards, tempo and visible engagement of the performer based on a selection of 15 audio-visual performances by popular virtuosos. In Experiment 2 these features were then used to obtain evaluations of perceived playing difficulty and impressiveness of the solos from subjects differing in musical competence (N = 59). Results revealed interactions between subjects’ musical competence and evaluations of show elements: (a) Music students gave higher ratings than did musically untrained subjects for the perceived playing difficulty and impressiveness of solos played in fast tempo; (b) surprisingly, solos with show elements were rated as more impressive – but only by the music students; (c) the visible engagement of the performer resulted in high ratings for playing difficulty – but only from the musically untrained subjects. We conclude that the technical difficulty of a performance is not self-evident to the recipient and depends on the rater’s degree of musical competence. The evaluations of a guitar performance by the majority of musically untrained recipients rely more on visible cues of engagement than on virtuosic playing (i.e., fast tempo, difficult techniques).
Synthetically modelled performances and commercial recordings of orchestral minuets were used in three rating tests and a synchronisation test to investigate two issues. The first one addresses the impression of authenticity and plausibility, i.e., the impression of a human-rendered performance, questioning whether smooth mathematical functions are adequate means of modelling timing and dynamics, or whether it is the deviations from smooth functions observed in human performances that contain hidden information contributing to the impression of authenticity and plausibility. The second question investigated whether the subjective impression of plausibility is also reflected in the anticipation of musical events, such as that required in a synchronisation task. In the plausibility tests, there was no significant difference between participants’ ratings of synthetic performances modelled with smooth functions and those including hidden information . In the synchronisation test, participants showed a higher standard deviation – proportionally to the mean beat length – in the tap-onset difference when tapping to the beat of a synthetic performance that had been rated implausible in the previous tests.
The experience of earworms, a type of involuntary musical imagery, may reflect a systematic failure in mental control. This study focused on how individual differences in each of two factors, schizotypy, or "openness to experience", and thought suppression might relate to the appearance of the involuntary musical image (earworm). Schizotypy was measured by Raine’s schizotypal personality questionnaire (SPQ; Raine, 1991) and thought suppression was measured by the White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI; Wegner & Zanakos, 1994). Each was found to contribute independently to the overall experience of involuntary musical imagery. Schizotypy was correlated with the length and disruptiveness of earworms, the difficulty with which they were dismissed and the worry they caused, but was not correlated with the frequency of such intrusive imagery. In turn, schizotypy was predicted by suppression and intrusion components of WBSI. The WBSI is associated with the length, disruptiveness, difficulty dismissing and interference but not with the worry caused or the frequency of earworms. The assumption of "ownership" of earworms was also found to affect the extent to which the earworms were considered worrying. Multiple regression analysis showed that both schizotypy and the WBSI predicted the difficulty with which unwanted musical images were dismissed, but that the WBSI accounted for additional variance on top of that accounted for by schizotypy. Finally we consider how earworm-management might relate to wider cognitive processes.
Contemporary microtonal music poses considerable challenges to professional performers. Here, we investigate five renditions of Klaus Huber’s "...Plainte..." for viola d’amore in third-tone tuning with respect to pitch accuracy at the acoustic level. The analysis also includes examining tones on open strings, which were played on the composer’s instrument. Significant differences between intended and realized fundamental frequency values were observed. The tuning of instruments deviated 14 to 42.5 cents from theoretical values. Influences of sound production on fundamental frequencies in performances were analysed, supplemented by additional analyses using the composer’s instrument. In each performance, the range of fundamental frequency deviations of tones played on open strings was considerably narrower than when tones were played with fingerboard stopping. In latter case, the range of deviations exceeded a third-tone interval (67 cents) in all performances and was larger than reported on tonal music in twelve-tone equal temperament. These results suggest specific limitations in the realization of third-tone music as performed on a fretless string instrument by highly-trained professional performers. The fact that three of the analysed recordings are commercially available further suggests that rather large deviations of fundamental frequencies from values described by music theory are accepted aesthetically.
The role of professional musicians playing in healthcare settings is largely non-documented, chiefly because musicians have worked on a voluntary basis or outside established music programmes. However, research in arts and health suggest that these musicians have acquired a level of expertise and that they have consequently developed a professional identity related to their work. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with two groups of musicians performing in healthcare settings in UK (N = 8) and Italy (N = 9) to investigate their motivations and perceived musical and interpersonal skills developed in their work. Interview data suggest that such musicians are highly motivated, wanting to perform in a variety of healthcare settings, often for strongly moral reasons, occasionally because of religious reasons. Musicians were conscious of the fact that any positive outcome of their performance was unlikely without possessing specific skills in social interaction, entailing empathy, appreciation, openness, flexibility of response and a sense of humour. The results are discussed in the light of the literature on professionalism and professional identity in healthcare settings.