This article, differentiating between factual and normative values, investigates the links between national culture and entrepreneurial activity in 24 countries based on 154 observations. We test hypotheses on the relationship between national culture—measured by Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)—and nascent entrepreneurship as represented by Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Both the GEM and the GLOBE databases are robust in terms of forming empirical connections between factual and normative culture and entrepreneurship at the country level. Using these two separate databases to examine our hypotheses enables us to avoid the methodological biases that frequently appear in studies where the same respondents provide data for both the independent and the dependent variables. The study demonstrates that the introduction of two different aspects of culture—normative and factual culture—may help resolve the inconsistencies in the literature regarding the links between culture and entrepreneurial activity. This study rekindles an old debate on the role of culture in the social sciences and the need to examine both factual and normative elements. We find that the connection between the normative values of culture and nascent entrepreneurial activity is stronger than the connection between the factual practices of culture and nascent entrepreneurial activity.
Globalization and quests for global presence have led multinational corporations (MNCs) to expand into newer markets with high returns. This expansion has increased competition for talented workers and driven the employment of an increasing number of expatriates to manage business operations overseas. Review of the literature shows that poor job performance can be related to poor cultural adjustment in new foreign locations. It is therefore critical to ensure that corporations are sending capable candidates for these roles overseas so that employing expatriates remain a good investment for MNCs. Due to improvements in political and economic situations in Africa, more international corporations are viewing the continent as a new market and are sending expatriates to manage business operations. A great deal of research on expatriate adjustment has been conducted in the last two decades. However, these studies have been predominately conducted in the west, with very little of this research having been conducted in Africa in general, or in Nigeria in particular, despite knowledge of the overwhelming adjustment challenges the continent poses to expatriates. The purpose of this study is to examine factors influencing expatriates’ adjustment in Nigeria. A survey method was used to gather data from expatriates who work in different organizations in Nigeria. The results of this study show that age, gender, previous experience, cross-cultural training (CCT), socialization, and job satisfaction were predictors of expatriates’ adjustment in Nigeria. This research is important because it may assist human resource professionals in planning and implementing an appropriate CCT program for employees relocating to Nigeria. It may help to bridge the gap in the literature on this topic with regards to Nigeria, Africa, and other emerging nations. It could also contribute to a better understanding.
Expatriation in emerging Arab Gulf States, specifically in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), is unlike expatriation elsewhere. In most of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, the workforce mainly consists of expatriates, with the local population forming a small minority. Given its previous role and expectations of a continuing need in the future, expatriation and migration have become a key topic in many political and socio-economic agendas in the GCC. In this respect, decision makers are grappling with often virulently controversial aspects in an effort to establish a balance between localization and expatriation. To date, research has not been successful in fully capturing the factors influencing this peculiar phenomenon and its consequences for expatriates living and working in UAE. Hence, this study suggests an additional approach and proposes a conceptual model to advance the understanding of the various forms and dynamics of expatriation, influenced and shaped by the national culture, institutional factors and localization policies within the UAE. This study has implications for cross-cultural management scholarship on expatriation in a region that has largely been ignored, in providing a more thorough appraisal of the cultural and institution context. It also provides a framework for contextualizing expatriation within cross-cultural management studies, which should be useful for scholars working in other regions.
Several studies in the Anglo-American context have indicated that managers present themselves as morally neutral employees who act only in the best interest of the company by employing objective skills. The reluctance of managers to use moral arguments in business is further accentuated in the now common argument presented as a neutral fact that the company must always prioritise shareholder value. These and other commercial aims are seen as an objective reality in business, whilst questions about sustainability, environmental problems or fair trade are seen as emotional or moral ones; a phenomenon described as ‘moral muteness’. This research explores whether this moral muteness is an Anglo-American phenomenon and/or whether managers in other countries – in this case Germany – might express themselves in a different way. The focus is on moral arguments around environmental sustainability and the implications of this study for cross-cultural management. This article is based on a qualitative, comparative cross-cultural study of British and German managers in the food retail and energy sectors. In line with the studies mentioned above, British managers placed a strong emphasis on their moral neutrality. In contrast, German managers tended to use moral arguments when discussing corporate greening, often giving such arguments more weight than financial arguments. Overall, the study suggests that the moral muteness of managers is a British phenomenon and quite distinct from the German approach. The article ends in a short exploration of how this understanding can help managers better manage people, organisations and change across cultures.
After the Bosman ruling in 1995, the cultural diversity of professional football teams in Europe has increased considerably. Recruiting players regardless of their nationality allows football clubs to make use of a global talent pool and to combine the specific strengths of individuals with different cultural backgrounds. At the same time, it confronts them with the challenge of having players who speak different languages and who have different football philosophies ingrained in them. Based on a structure–leadership–performance model, we test the impact of various cultural factors on team success against the background of archival data of 2483 players of 98 clubs in the 5 largest European football leagues (England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain). We find a negative effect of cultural diversity of the team and of intercultural experience of a coach on team performance. We derive implications for research on multicultural teams and for the management of football teams.
The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of cultural intelligence (CQ) and conflict management styles on a person’s cross-cultural adjustment in an Asian context. A total of 260 international students completed the paper-based questionnaires in Taiwan. We utilized multiple hierarchical regression to analyze the data and thereby to test the effects of CQ on cross-cultural adjustment as well as the moderating effects of conflict management styles on the relationship between CQ and cross-cultural adjustment. The results showed that CQ had a positive relationship with both general adjustment and interaction adjustment after controlling for age, length of residence in the local country, previous overseas experience, English language ability, and Chinese language ability. Moreover, we found that an active conflict management style negatively moderated the relationships between CQ and general adjustment and between CQ and interaction adjustment, while an agreeable conflict management style only positively moderated the relationship of CQ and general adjustment. Ultimately, we were able to demonstrate the importance of CQ and conflict management styles in understanding the links that are related to cross-cultural adjustment. We also provided several practical implications for firms and for individuals in order to improve their cross-cultural effectiveness.
This study identifies antecedents of two specific dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior, altruism (OCBI) and civic virtue (OCBO), in a sample of Arab employees working in Kuwait. Results indicate that a collectivist orientation is a significant predictor of altruism and that procedural justice and job satisfaction are significant predictors of civic virtue. Additionally, respondents indicate that both altruism and civic virtue behaviors are more likely to be perceived as in-role than extra-role behaviors by study participants. Findings provide additional insight into the relevance of OCB and its antecedents in organizations within an Arab cultural context and the resultant implications for managerial processes and decisions.
Despite the great interest in Hofstede’s dimensions of national culture, some of them have not been replicated with nationally representative samples. In this study, we use 2010 European Social Survey data for 25 European countries and Israel and obtain a close replication of Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance (r = 0.81, p < 0.001, n = 17) with strong face validity, internal reliability, and similar predictive properties to those of the original measure. The replication and our analysis elucidate the nature of uncertainty avoidance as a dimension of national culture and expose some misconceptions about it.
By analysing the experience of Cypriot workers who studied and worked in Britain and the United States and then returned to Cyprus to work, it is argued in this article that the time abroad contributes to making their authority relations’ conceptions less authoritarian. On return home, many of the individuals who studied abroad wish to retain the newly acquired elements in their attitudes and behaviour, but even though they seem able to influence workers around them, especially subordinates, to act in a less authoritarian manner, they find that they have to adjust, at least to an extent, to local norms, particularly when other co-workers did not go through a similar educational experience. These findings suggest that an experience in a less authoritarian society compared to the home culture tends to shift authority relations norms to the less authoritarian but adjustment is likely needed on return home. Implications for managerial practice are briefly discussed.
The purpose of this article is to investigate the role of cultural intelligence (CQ) in contributing to the socialization of recent immigrant newcomers (RINs). Drawing on relevant literatures, a conceptual model is developed, highlighting the role of RINs’ CQ in helping them choose the appropriate adjustment strategies that in turn allow them to better perform their job and to socially integrate into their workplace. The article also examines the impact of the social context of the organization, namely the level of diversity, specifically focusing on how RINs may choose different adjustment strategies depending on the type of organizational context and according to the variance in their CQ. Thus, the article makes three important contributions. First, the article integrates CQ literature with immigrant and socialization literatures by exploring the process through which RINs’ CQ can enhance their role performance and social integration during socialization. Second, at the individual level, RINs may find the analysis useful in comprehending the role of CQ for understanding cultural nuances and developing relationships with their new work colleagues, and this may motivate them to further develop their CQ. Third, organizations may consider providing RINs—as well as other employees—with cross-cultural training incorporating CQ modules to enhance and improve their CQ and thereby optimize RINs’ organizational socialization.
In this study, we examine the role of cultural variations conceptualized in terms of vertical and horizontal individualism and collectivism in the prediction of work–family conflict in four distinct national contexts of the United States, Australia, South Korea, and Japan. The results of our study suggest that vertical individualism is a strong predictor of work–family conflict across cultural and national boundaries. The findings indicate the importance of cultural dimensions as correlates or predictors of work–family conflict—especially, it highlights the role of the two components of the polythetic construct of individualism–collectivism: horizontal and vertical. Implications are discussed for future research in the area of international and cross-cultural studies of work–family conflict-related issues.
Workplace bullying has increasingly become of interest to scholars and practicing managers due to its creation of dysfunctional intraorganizational conflict and its negative effects on employees and the workplace. Although studies have explored bullying in different cultural contexts, little research exists that provides a comparison of bullying behaviors across cultural dimensions. This article describes a new research agenda that analyzes the impact of specific cultural dimensions—assertiveness, in-group collectivism, and power distance—on organizational bullying. An expanded categorization of bullying prevalence and form is also proposed, with implications for both future research and organizational practice provided.
Guanxi has been well documented for its critical business role in China but rarely has it been investigated for its important methodological implications. This article focuses on the ways in which researchers can utilise the sociocultural phenomenon of relational and guanxi-orientation as a tool for more effective Chinese-related data collection. This article arose as an unanticipated methodological outcome of a preceding qualitative study of Chinese perceptions of interpersonal trust. The article has empirical foundations but is largely conceptual in nature. One of the key aspects presented in the article is the construction and illustration of a researcher-developed guanxishu or tree of connections. Such insights are likely to prove invaluable to novice investigators interested in management research in Mainland China and overseas Chinese markets. Experienced researchers understand the importance in Chinese markets of accessing and utilising connections in the process of data collection. However, seldom has this process been discussed or comprehensively documented. The article identifies some of the important intricacies around using guanxi in management research.
Employing an experimental design, we investigated how Norwegian managers’ (N = 78) evaluations and intended hiring decisions varied with job applicants’ ethnic background (immigrant vs. native Norwegian mainstreamer) and the degree to which the candidates’ self-presentation fitted Norwegian cultural norms (level of cultural fit). The participants viewed video clips of applicants whose ethnicity and self-presentation was manipulated. Irrespective of ethnic background, low cultural fit candidates were evaluated as less similar, less likable, less likely to perform well, and as more poorly fitting the managers’ organization. However, low and high cultural fit candidates were evaluated as exhibiting similar levels of person–job fit. Logistic regression analyses showed that low cultural fit candidates were about six times less likely to be hired than high cultural fit candidates. In practice, immigrant applicants are more likely to exhibit low cultural fit. It is concluded that emphasis on cultural fit could easily have a disproportionate effect on immigrants’ chances of being hired, notably if fit is not predictive of job performance.
Taking a critical discursive approach (Potter and Wetherell, 1987; Wetherell and Potter, 1988, 1992) to analysing interview data, the article discusses the possible implications of top and middle managers’ constructions of intercultural collaboration for the day-to-day workings of a Danish–Ukrainian software company. Of particular interest is the extent to which divergent and contesting understandings may lead to positive synergies or conflict, and whether managers’ reflections may function as a means of justifying a particular mindset or course of action, provoking either contestation or acceptance within the organisation (e.g. Parker, 2000). Thus, the findings provide insight into the relation between discourse, that is, talk as (inter)action, and the development and enactment of organisational culture, contributing valuable and practice-oriented knowledge to the field of cross-cultural management. The data for the analysis are derived from 10 semi-structured interviews, which were conducted in the Danish headquarters and the Ukrainian division, respectively, securing a broad intraorganisational representation of voices.
In this study, we introduce a conceptual framework for transnational social capital as a higher order multidimensional construct. Consistent with this view, we develop and validate a 11-item scale aimed at measuring bridging and bonding social capital embedded within a cross-border network of professional relations and ties. Data from several exploratory and confirmatory studies of executives and Master of Business Administration students show reliability and construct validity. This research instrument provides researchers with a valuable resource for assessing transnational social capital of individuals and exploring its implications.
This study examined the association between selected organizational factors and job satisfaction dimensions. The study sample consisted of 346 women managers working in the services industry in Lebanon. This study findings indicate that managerial rank, monthly salary, and the size of the organization have a statistically significant effect on the job satisfaction of Lebanese women managers. Overall, the data revealed that women managers in the services industry were satisfied with their careers, despite their dissatisfaction with pay, fringe benefits, and promotions. The findings present implications for business management processes, human resource practices, and government-led initiatives in Lebanon and in the Arab Middle East.
This study examines whether an international work assignment can contribute toward expatriates developing greater cognitive complexity, the core building block of a global mindset and a capability critical to being an effective cross-cultural operative. Using a pre-test–post-test longitudinal panel design, cognitive changes in a sample of Australian and New Zealand expatriates working in 18 different countries were measured. The findings show that, as a group, the expatriates’ levels of cognitive complexity increased significantly during the 12-month study period. The individuals who experienced the largest increase were those who interacted most frequently with host culture nationals.
This study examines the interplay between ethnicity, religious affiliation, and income levels to understand differences in managing money. Asset allocation decisions among 730 Caucasian and ethnic Chinese were examined. Respondents in Australia, Canada, and China revealed their monetary decisions in an online survey. Multivariate analysis of variance was used to examine differences and interaction effects between ethnic, religious, and income groups. The study found that for the higher-income respondents, asset allocation decisions converged despite differences in ethnic and religious background. In the lower-income segment, asset allocation decisions varied along ethnic lines. These differences were further compounded by their religious background. The implications of this study of management are twofold: the high-income group can be treated as one segment, for example, from the international marketing segmentation perspective. On the other hand, respondents in the low-income bracket diverged in their investment strategies on the basis of ethnicity and religion. As such, they ought to be treated separately according to their values.