The present study describes the development and testing of the Perceived Immigration Policy Effects Scale (PIPES). The measure was developed in Spanish to assess the impact of state-level immigration policies on Latino immigrant parents. This study describes the steps taken to develop the scale items and psychometric testing. The scale was completed by 300 Latino immigrant parents in the state of Arizona. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis revealed/confirmed a four-factor model (discrimination, social exclusion, threat to family, and children’s vulnerability). The subscales and total scale have excellent reliability (α = .824-.934). Additional testing is needed to examine the application of the scale beyond states passing restrictive immigration policies.
Although Latina/o youth are one the fastest growing segments of the U.S. population, they face a number of educational hurdles, such as disproportionate school punishment and increased risk of dropping out of high school. This topic is particularly relevant today in the midst of the current social, political, and economic debate over the "school-to-prison pipeline." This study draws from the Educational Longitudinal Study and utilizes multilevel modeling to analyze the relationships between school justice, fairness, order, dropping out, and gender disparities for 1,800 Latina/o and 6,300 White public school students. Findings suggest that school punishment is contributing to Latina/o youth dropping out; however, it is also evident that improving school justice and fairness can ameliorate the risk of dropping out for Latina/o youth. The significance and implications of justice, fairness, and order for Latina/o youth within the United States school system are discussed more generally.
In the current study, we investigated the psychometric properties of two meaningful measures of subjective well-being among Mexican American high school and college students. Participants completed the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) or Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) as measures of subjective well-being. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to evaluate structural validity. A modest one-factor structure was found for the SWLS and SHS. Internal consistency was good (.81) and acceptable (.77) as measured by coefficient alpha. Findings provide support for the reliability and validity of the SWLS and SHS as measures of subjective well-being with Mexican American students. A discussion regarding the psychometric properties and implications for research is provided.
In the United States, the construction of "illegality" of undocumented Latino workers is predicated upon multiple interacting social, economic, political, and sociological factors and consignment to an inferior social status, harsh living conditions, and exploitation. These "cumulative vulnerabilities" contribute to increased stressors and poor psychological health outcomes. However, little is known about these marginalized workers’ experience of negotiating life in "illegality." This qualitative study adopts a social constructivist perspective to examine the strategies these undocumented workers use to manage "illegality" and psychosocial stress. We conducted four focus groups with 27 participants and in-depth interviews with eight of these participants. Thematic analysis combined with constant comparison yielded the overarching theme of living sin papeles (without legal papers). Findings reveal that, phenomenologically, sin papeles extends far beyond legal status, being a condition of ever-present instability, insecurity, and hypervigilance that affects the social, work, health, and living conditions of undocumented Latino immigrants.
Familism is a core Latino value that emphasizes close family relationships and prioritizing of family before the self. Familism has implications for well-being and health, but it is not clear whether these values are generally beneficial or beneficial under stress. We examined whether the associations of familism with well-being/health were consistent with a main effect or stress-buffering model in Latinos and non-Latinos. Latino (n = 171), European (n = 225), and East Asian Americans (n = 415) completed measures of familism, stress, well-being, and health. In terms of general benefits, familism was negatively associated with loneliness, depression, and physical symptoms. In terms of stress-buffering benefits, the combination of high familism with high stress was associated with higher self-esteem and subjective health than the combination of low familism with high stress. These patterns were consistent across groups, suggesting that familism can be beneficial for Latinos and non-Latinos.
This exploratory study analyzed the influence of Zapotec parental socialization practices on the cultural awareness and involvement, ethnic identity, and Zapotec language use of their adolescent children. A total of 15 parent-child dyads participated in the study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents. Adolescents responded to corresponding open-ended questions in a written survey. Results indicate that the children of parents who were the most involved in cultural groups and organizations were more likely to participate in traditional dance and music groups. The children of parents who identified as indigenous and encouraged Zapotec language use were more likely to also identify as indigenous and speak Zapotec. High cultural awareness and participation among adolescents was not always related to indigenous self-identification and/or Zapotec language use. Many adolescents who did not self-identify as indigenous and did not speak Zapotec also reported high levels of cultural awareness and involvement. Implications for parental socialization research on Mexican indigenous immigrants in the United States are discussed.
While Latino/as are the largest racial/ethnic group in the United States, they continue to face challenges throughout their educational careers. Latino males, in particular, are said to be vanishing from higher education, earning fewer degrees than their female counterparts. Using in-depth interviews with 24 Latino male collegians, we sought to understand the process of resilience for this population, looking specifically at the factors that enhance their educational access and success within postsecondary institutions. The data demonstrate the social identities and environmental contexts that foster resilience for Latino males, despite adversities they may face. Four main themes arose, illuminating the challenges Latino males may face in their path to college and elucidating the ways they use their identities as motivation and the educational contexts that support their resilience. We highlight resilience as a process, calling for educators to consider the ways in which they can support Latino males’ aspirations into and through college.
Latinos are one of the fastest growing sectors in the American population, and Latinos figure prominently in many political, economic, and educational social systems. Unfortunately, the juvenile justice system is no exception. At least 18,000 Latino youth are incarcerated annually, and they are 2 to 3 times more likely to be incarcerated than White youth. This article discusses three broad topics that relate specifically to Latino youth and their families who are served by juvenile justice facilities: language development and communication between Latino families and professionals in the educational and justice systems, sociocultural variables specific to Latino families, and ethical considerations for professionals who interact with Latino youth. Specific strategies for both the educational and juvenile justice systems are suggested that might enable these groups to better serve Latino youth and their families. Both research and case studies of Latino youth served in the court diversion program, Reading for Life, are considered.
Immigration and globalization have dramatically changed the ethnic landscape of the United States, yet stereotypes about race continue to exist. Foreign language classrooms are at the heart of teaching about diversity. We investigated whether undergraduates (with varying exposure to Spanish language education) could accurately identify the race of Hispanic people depicted in photographs. The amount of Spanish courses was unrelated to participants’ accuracy; however, the number of courses was inversely related to confidence. The findings from this exploratory study suggest that the more Spanish language education one has, the more one realizes that appearances can be deceiving; as a result, individuals may be less likely to adhere to societally conditioned stereotypes of specific groups of people. At a time when foreign language programs are at risk of being eliminated from colleges and universities, these findings should serve as a message to educators and administrators alike about the importance of foreign language education.
In response to an increase in undocumented immigrants in the United States, several states have proposed and passed ballot measures that are intended to target immigrants, particularly Latinos. Yet, previous research has often failed to focus on Latino viewpoints in relation to these measures and the restrictions therein. As such, I utilize the 2006 Latino National Survey to examine how different sectors of the U.S. Latino population view policies that have been the focus of ballot initiatives targeting immigrants. I first make the distinction between native-born and foreign-born Latinos to determine whether opinions concerning proposed restrictions on immigrants differ between these groups. Furthermore, I examine whether foreign-born Latinos who are more assimilated into U.S. society differ in their attitudes on these measures than more recent immigrants. Results indicate a clear distinction with U.S.-born Latinos exhibiting more nativist views toward immigrants and restrictive measures than foreign-born Latinos.
Undocumented Latina/o college students face obstacles and stressors; their stressful experiences and academic strengths merit empirical attention. This cross-sectional, mixed-methods study explored stress, depression, grit, and grade point average (GPA) of 84 non-citizen, Latina/o first-generation college students with a comparison group of 180 citizen, Latina/o first-generation college students in Maryland. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 21 non-citizens and 26 citizens, after conducting a quantitative online survey. Immigrant status moderated the relation between depression and GPA in addition to grit and depression. Qualitative findings suggested that stress for citizens and non-citizens centered on financing college, but non-citizens faced additional stress due to policies pertaining to immigration status. Both groups displayed grit in navigating obstacles and contained their emotions with positive self-talk, but most non-citizens did not turn to anyone outside of the family for support. Findings hold implications for ecological processes and achievement among Latina/o undocumented college students.
This study examined the association of the four posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters (re-experiencing, avoidance, dysphoria, and hyperarousal) included in the Dysphoria factor model to depression, substance abuse, and general stress among 551 male, Hispanic firefighters in a large metropolitan city in the United States. Approximately 11% of the participants demonstrated elevated PTSD compared with a 7% PTSD prevalence rate in the U.S. Hispanic population. Results of bivariate correlations and regression analyses indicated that, as expected, the dysphoria cluster captured a general distress dimension common to other affective disorders, whereas re-experiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms demonstrated stronger specificity to depression than to substance abuse or general stress. Findings suggest that treatment approaches to PTSD with Hispanics should include interventions such as behavioral activation, which are designed to address non-specific distress.
This study aimed to describe strategies used in magazine cover lines to capture the attention of Latino consumers. A content analysis of cover lines (n = 581) from six top-selling Latino women’s and parenting magazines (n = 217 issues) sold in the United States identified 12 common themes: great/inspiring, beauty/health, bad/negative, love/passion, family/protective, strength/power, daring, informative/how-to, newness/uniqueness, improve/organize, happiness/fun, and easy/simple, with the first seven being unique to Latino-targeted magazines. Theses unique themes may be related to certain Latino cultural constructs, such as familismo, machismo, and respeto. Cover lines for nutrition education information mini-magazines were written using the strategies identified in the content analysis, then cognitive tested with 112 Spanish-speaking Latino parents. Parents felt the cover lines matched the guide content, were attention grabbing and catchy, and would motivate parents to read the mini-magazine. Findings can assist health communicators in creating brief Latino-targeted messages that are culturally responsive and capture reader interest.
Siblings play a critical role in the socialization experiences of their younger siblings. Societal values, standards, and customs are transmitted and created through the process of modeling and the construction of shared meaning. It follows, therefore, that the process of socialization may be culturally dependent. Using multiple case studies of five sibling dyads, we aim to examine the process of initiation and co-construction of second-generation Spanish-speaking children while engaged in free play activities. Examination of fieldnotes, videotapes, and transcriptions suggests that younger siblings initiated more interactions than their older siblings. However, older sibling initiations were more likely to lead to co-construction. Moreover, when younger sibling initiations were successful, this process of co-construction appears to be contingent on the support provided by their more skilled older siblings. We suggest that by serving as models, older siblings are fulfilling their familial responsibility and preparing their younger siblings for school-based social interactions.
The 2.5 generation refers to individuals who have one parent born in the United States and one born in another country. The presence of both native-born and foreign-born parents has the potential to enhance bicultural adaptation. Across two studies with Latino young adults, we examine the extent to which the 2.5 generation is distinct from members of other generations with regard to cultural orientation, acculturative stress, and parent ethnic socialization. Results suggest that the 2.5-generation individuals report greater native cultural orientation, ethnic identity, and parental socialization compared with third-generation individuals, along with greater American orientation than first-generation individuals. The 2.5 generation also reports less language use and more acculturative stress due to Spanish competency pressures than first- and second-generation individuals. These results demonstrate that the 2.5-generation individuals may have some bicultural advantages compared with third-generation individuals; however, they may also experience similar challenges with regard to language maintenance.
Positive psychology is a useful framework to understand Mexican American college students’ complete mental health. In the current study, we examined how presence of meaning in life, search for meaning in life, hope, mindfulness, and grit influenced 130 Mexican American college students’ life satisfaction and depression. Within the first regression model, hope, mindfulness, and presence of meaning in life were positively related with life satisfaction. Within the second regression model, mindfulness and search for meaning in life were related with depression. Higher levels of mindfulness negatively predicted depressive symptoms, while higher levels of search for meaning in life were related with higher levels of depressive symptoms. A discussion regarding the importance of these findings and recommendations for future research are provided.
The topic of immigration reform has been at the forefront of the political debate for many years. The debate has been especially intense in Arizona, a border state where sentiments over immigration are strong and which has, in the last decade, approved a series of measures directed to curtail the presence of unauthorized immigrants. Using the critical race theory notions of majoritarian storytelling and counter-storytelling as well as interest-convergence theory, the present study examined the types of arguments provided by the editorials of two newspapers in Arizona, The Arizona Republic and La Prensa Hispana, on the topic of immigration reform in the period between 2007 and 2011. Results show that the English-language publication justified the need for reform in the interests of American businesses, whereas the Spanish-language newspaper cited the well-being of the immigrant community.
This study examined familial factors unique to Latino adolescents within a cognitive vulnerability stress framework, in which negative patterns of thinking contribute to the development of depressive symptoms following stressful life events. Participants were Latino adolescents (N = 90), 12 to 18 years old. Almost half (~48%) reported elevated depressive symptoms. The final regression model explained 67% of the prevalence of depressive symptoms; stressful life events (including family conflict) and a ruminative response style emerged as unique predictors. Additional sociocultural factors contributing to the model’s explanatory power were familism, family cohesion, and perceived discrimination. Rumination and stressful life events should be considered targets for depression prevention and early intervention programs with Latino youth. Such programs would benefit from cultural modifications that encourage family cohesion and a sense of familism.
This study assesses the relationships across racial and ethnic self-identifications, gender, and college attainment within the Latino group. With the use of data from the basic Current Population Survey (2010-2012), the results indicate that college attainment varies within the Latino sample by racial and ethnic self-identifications even after controlling for cultural, socioeconomic, and demographic factors. Specifically, the results of the logistic analysis indicate that Latinos who self-identify as Asian Hawaiian have higher odds of having a college degree than those who self-identify as White. Interestingly, Latinos who self-classify as Mexican, Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Central American are less likely than Cubans to attain a college degree even after controlling for an array of cultural, socioeconomic, and demographic factors. Contrary to our hypothesis, the effect of gender is not found to be significant. Ultimately, the results provide evidence to the limitations of aggregating the Latino population to understand their college attainment.
This study examined the psychometric properties of the Brief Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (BASH), a four-item, language-based measure of acculturation. Participants in the study were 435 Hispanic Americans from a large metropolitan area with English or Spanish language preference. Internal consistency reliability was strong in both language-preference groups. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate the structural validity of the measure. A unidimensional factor structure was found for both English and Spanish language-preference groups and items loaded equivalently across groups, demonstrating measurement invariance. The BASH had good convergent validity and incremental validity. Overall, this study provides further evidence that the BASH offers a brief, reliable, and valid measure of acculturation to be used among Hispanic Americans.
This study used a survey of 218 Mexican women living in Illinois to test if measures of women’s empowerment in the economic, sociocultural, interpersonal/relational, and political dimensions influenced condom use. Our findings revealed that sociocultural and political forms of empowerment were significantly correlated with condom use. More specifically, women who were allowed to leave the house to visit friends without their husband/partner’s permission, had a cell phone, worked for or contributed to a political campaign, participated in a public meeting, and voted were more likely to use condoms with their husband or partners than other women. In addition, women who were younger and completed the survey in English were also more likely to use condoms. However, neither women’s economic nor interpersonal empowerment in their romantic relationship influenced condom use. Thus, women’s general empowerment may be a crucial preamble to safe sex.
We examined whether self-esteem and ethnic identity moderated or mediated the relationship between two types of acculturative stress (American-based and Mexican-based) and psychological well-being among 171 first-generation Mexican immigrant adults. American-based acculturative stress (ABAS) was defined as the stress related to the pressure from Anglo-Americans to improve English and adopt their cultural practices, while Mexican-based acculturative stress (MBAS) was related to the pressure from Mexican immigrants to improve Spanish and retain Mexican cultural practices. The findings suggested that self-esteem was negatively affected by acculturative stress, which, in turn, led to decreased psychological well-being. However, having high self-esteem alleviated the debilitating effects of acculturative stress against psychological well-being. In contrast to self-esteem, ethnic identity exacerbated the negative effect of acculturative stress on psychological well-being.
This exploratory study examined the relationships among individual characteristics, language brokering experiences and attitudes, and multiple dimensions of self-concept among a sample of Latino adolescents. The sample was comprised of 66 Latino students in 6th through 11th grades who were proficient in both Spanish and English. Results from regression analyses and correlational analyses showed that language brokering frequency was negatively associated with academic self-concept and perceived popularity at school, language brokering difficulty was a positive predictor of academic self-concept, and language brokering attitudes were positively related to academic self-concept, perceived popularity with peers, and confidence in one’s physical appearance. Students who were first-generation immigrants not only reported brokering more frequently, brokering in more difficult situations, and feeling more positive about language brokering, but also reported lower emotional well-being as compared to students born in the United States. Implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.
This study explores the psychological and family well-being of Mexican undocumented and unaccompanied children sent back through the U.S. border region of Sonora-Arizona. Procedures included exploring children’s own accounts using semi-structured interviews with 13 minors (9-17 years old) conducted at border shelters within Mexico. Based on previous qualitative findings, psychological measurement scales were administered to 53 participant children and adolescents during the second phase. There were statistically significant correlations between number of crossing attempts and resilience, as well as between number of days in the shelter and depression. The findings suggest that children possess psychological resources to face distress and negative affect caused by family separation, unaccompanied travel, and crossing experiences. These findings contribute to informing future public health policy and programs directed at the increasing population of unaccompanied minor migrants.
A vast literature documents a host of advantages conferred upon middle class European American children whose parents employ an authoritative style of parenting, including enhanced academic achievement and positive behavioral outcomes. The literature is much less clear about the relationship between parental authority style and child outcomes in other cultural contexts. In this study, we examined the relations among authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles and practices and several academic and behavioral outcomes among fifth grade Latino/a students. We found significant positive relations between parental authoritativeness and grades, academic engagement, social competence, self-regulation, and perspective-taking as well as negative relations between authoritativeness and aggression. We found no relations between authoritarian or permissive parenting styles and child outcomes. We consider these findings in light of what other researchers have posited about collectivist parenting styles and practices.
Adolescent overweight/obesity (OW/O) has reached epidemic proportions. The Youth Self-Report (YSR) was administered to 514 primarily Hispanic urban high school students to examine the relationship between weight and psychological distress. YSR and study population-specific norms were used to assess risk on Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn/Depressed, Somatic Complaints, and Social Problems scales. OW/O status increased Social Problems regardless of norms. OW/O students endorsed greater Withdrawn/Depressed symptoms with YSR norms; greater Anxious/Depressed and Somatic Complaints were endorsed with population-specific norms. Females drive results. Findings suggest norms need to incorporate minority and economically disadvantaged groups.