Anti-Racism Football Campaigns in Spain and England: Public Discourse and Polarization on X

Alberto Álvarez-Álvarez, Peter Kerkhof, Department of Business Administration , Applied Economics II and Fundaments of Economic Analysis, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Department of Communication Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Communication & Sport

Published online on June 01, 2026

Abstract

Communication & Sport, Ahead of Print.
The efforts of institutions to eradicate hate both within and beyond the sporting domain have led professional football leagues such as the Premier League and La Liga to develop their own anti-racism campaigns. This study examines X users’ reactions to ...