This study examines the impact of intensive training in leadership and advocacy skills on the level of knowledge about services and supports, advocacy activity, and the clarity of vision for the future of 123 individuals with disabilities and family members who participated in an annual New Hampshire Leadership Series over 7 years. There was a significant increase in knowledge about services and supports following training in every year, and consistently significant increases in advocacy activity and clarity of vision in Years 4 through 7, with particularly striking improvement associated with the addition of a stronger emphasis on person-centered planning within the curriculum. The implications of a sustained effort to develop a statewide grassroots leadership capacity on policies and practices are discussed.
Data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2) were used to examine the impact of three personal factors—race/ethnicity, gender, and family income—on self-determination (i.e., autonomy, psychological empowerment, self-realization) and early adulthood outcome constructs. Findings suggest for those with high-incidence disabilities, family income predicts postsecondary education outcomes. And males with high-incidence disabilities have greater access to services and accommodations as adults, but lower use of financial supports (i.e., use of government support programs). African American youth across disability categories reported lower levels of financial independence. Females with intellectual disability reported greater social relationships but lower levels of financial support and employment. Implications for future research, policy, and practice are discussed.
Facilitated individualized education planning (FIEP) presents an alternative to formalized dispute resolution procedures, which can have damaging financial and relational consequences for families and schools. Although recommended as an alternative dispute resolution practice, minimal research has examined its implementation and evaluation. In this study, we described where and how FIEP was being implemented and what types of data state educational agencies (SEAs) implementing FIEP were collecting. In two phases, we contacted representatives of each SEA in the United States, asking them to complete a survey on their state’s use of FIEP, and then to share outcome and participant feedback data and data collection forms. From 43 responses in the first phase, we found that almost half of SEAs are using FIEPs (n = 24), and of those not currently using FIEP, 12 were considering implementing the practice in the future. In the second phase of the study, we found that six states that responded to the request for data captured similar content on meeting outcomes and participant feedback. Outcome data provided preliminary, initial evidence for the potential effectiveness of FIEP in achieving positive outcomes in the form of agreement or consensus regarding IEPs. Implications for practice, research, and policy are discussed.
Over one million Americans aged 15 years and older are deaf or hard of hearing. These individuals may face barriers to and within the labor market, leading to lower employment rates and reduced earnings compared with their counterparts without a hearing disability. Our study contributes to the sparse literature on the relationship between hearing disability and labor market outcomes by examining "hearing earnings gaps," namely, earnings gaps between individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing and their counterparts without a hearing disability. Using a sample of 25- to 40-year-old full-time year-round workers from the 2011 American Community Survey, we estimate separate earnings equations by hearing ability and gender using generalized estimating equations. For both men and women, Blinder–Oaxaca decompositions indicate that roughly 40% of the overall hearing earnings gap is attributable to differences in educational attainment, potential experience, race/ethnicity, and marital status. The remaining 60% may reflect differences in communication skills and other unobservable characteristics, occupational segregation, labor market discrimination, and stigma.
Legislative advocacy is a prime channel for disability advocates to affect civil rights and disability-related legislation and policy that leads to improved quality of life for individuals with disabilities. To highlight the current status of disability legislative advocacy, this study examined advocacy experiences based on recent data from one state that involved 113 disability advocates and self-advocates. Analyses were conducted to examine the characteristics of advocates, the causes advocated, leadership positions, level of engagement, and frequency of engagement in the legislative advocacy process. Relations among advocates’ characteristics and advocacy experiences were also examined. Results revealed that individuals with disabilities mostly relied on their peers in the advocacy process, and the type of disability was associated with the causes advocated. In addition, holding a leadership position was associated with engagement in the legislative advocacy process.
Transportation is the most frequently reported problem for people with disabilities. While some people with disabilities have difficulty with limited or no public transportation systems, others have trouble with inaccessible infrastructures and systems. In addition, people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) often have trouble with many of the skills that navigating transportation requires. Although accessible transportation is crucial for independent living, Medicaid only requires states cover nonemergency medical transportation and does not require transportation related to other aspects necessary for community living such as accessing work, errands, or recreational activities. The purpose of this article is to examine Medicaid Home and Community-Based Services (HCBS) 1915(c) waivers, the largest provider of long-term services and supports for people with IDD, to see how transportation is provided for people with IDD. Our examination of 99 waivers for FY 2013 revealed 58 waivers provided transportation-specific services and 71 waivers provided transportation within another service. The majority of waivers provided transportation for people with IDD through these two means; however, this transportation was often limited to very specific purposes. From our findings, it appears transportation services for people with IDD in waivers need to be expanded to support community access and integration.
Despite being the first state to abolish the capital punishment of defendants with intellectual disability (ID), Georgia is currently the only state to uphold what is considered to be the most stringent standard of proof of ID in the United States: beyond a reasonable doubt. Other states have implemented less stringent standards of proof (i.e., a preponderance of the evidence and clear and convincing evidence). Although the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the execution of persons with ID unconstitutional in the 2002 Atkins decision, states are at this juncture considered to have a great deal of discretion in defining what constitutes ID. In addition to raising concerns about the Eighth Amendment’s protection against cruel and unusual punishment, variation between state-determined definitions of ID raises important questions of equal protection of the law. On January 27, 2015, Mr. Warren Lee Hill was executed by method of lethal injection in the state of Georgia after the U.S. Supreme Court denied Mr. Hill’s claim to have met the state’s legal definition of ID beyond a reasonable doubt. This article provides a historical and legislative background for the case of Warren Lee Hill, while examining the definitions of ID (including adaptive functioning) in the legal and clinical arenas. Last, this article will take a critical stance with regard to the current diagnostic criteria being used in the state of Georgia.
Effectively integrating provisions of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) into public Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) systems will require extensive effort at both the organizational and system levels. This article presents information on WIOA provisions, enacted in July of 2014, that affect public VR systems plus rationale, strategies, and tools for implementing these provisions in a manner that promotes quality and sustainability. Both "ideal" implementation methods and "pragmatic" methods are presented based on the experience of one state’s efforts to incorporate customized employment strategies into its VR system to benefit customers who have not been successful at achieving a competitive, integrated employment outcome through traditional VR strategies.
To understand the role of Medicaid in financing health services delivered through special education, program characteristics and covered services were compared from all 50 states and Washington, D.C. Data were collected from school-based fee schedules and policy manuals available through state Medicaid or education agencies. Except Wyoming, all states bill Medicaid for school-based health services, but there is substantive variation across states in services covered. The service categories most often covered by states’ Medicaid special education programs are speech–language/audiology, occupational/physical therapy, and behavioral health. Almost all states use a fee-for-service payment methodology to reimburse for services. Implications for the delivery of care to and health outcomes of students with disabilities are discussed.
Living arrangements are often influenced by disability status, and co-resident caregivers may facilitate access to health care, especially for community-dwelling older adults with disabilities. Despite this, we know very little about how disability status and household composition work together to affect health services use. Using data from the National Health Interview Survey (2009–2011; n = 16,720), this study investigates (a) how access to medical care varies by disability status and household composition and (b) whether the relationship between household composition and health care access differs by disability status. We find that the risk of delayed care due to cost or lack of transportation is highest for older adults living alone or with non-spousal others. Older adults living alone without disabilities have lower odds of delayed care due to difficulty making a timely appointment than older adults living with a spouse. Furthermore, we find that older adults living alone with disabilities have elevated odds of delayed care for any reason. These findings can help target interventions to improve health care access through programs such as home- and community-based care and non-emergency medical transportation.
This analysis provides an update of the national incidence data for "504-only" students, that is, students who are not eligible under the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act but are eligible under the broader definition of disability in Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, as amended by the Americans With Disabilities Act of 2008. More specifically, this article analyzes the data for 504-only students overall and for selected student and school characteristics based on the 2011–2012 Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) and compares the results with the parallel analysis of the 2009–2010 CRDC. The findings include a national incidence of 1.48%, as compared with 1.02% for 2009–2010, and continuing notable difference for student race/ethnicity and gender, and for school Title I status. However, the more recent data do not show a notable difference between the percentages of 504-only students in charter and non-charter schools. The discussion includes research as well as policy considerations.
Previous research suggests that prisoners have a higher rate of disability than non-institutionalized adults. This study used nationally representative data to update the prevalence rate, identify correlates of disability, and evaluate disability-related disparities in use of prison-based educational services, vocational programs, and work assignments. Data were obtained from 18,185 prisoners interviewed in the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities. Survey logistic regression procedures were conducted using Stata 13. Disability prevalence remained substantially higher among prisoners than among the non-institutionalized population. Prisoners were more likely to report specific learning, sensory, and speech-related disabilities than non-institutionalized adults. Prisoners with at least one type of disability had more criminogenic risk factors and come from a more disadvantaged background than prisoners without disability. Prisoners with disabilities were also less likely to utilize vocational programs and work assignments but were more likely to use educational programs than prisoners without disabilities. In summary, 41% of prisoners reported a disability, most commonly, learning disabilities. Prisoners with disabilities were identified as an at-risk group for recidivism, given their pre-incarceration experiences, and limited vocational and work-related training received in prison.
Missouri’s Partnership for Hope (PfH) is a home and community-based services (HCBS) Medicaid waiver that targets services to the needs of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). PfH is predicated on a unique federal–state–county partnership, where counties may vote to participate in PfH by leveraging funds for services. The aim of this study was to explore the economic impact of PfH. The economic contribution and impact of PfH (October 2010–September 2013) were explored using IMPLAN software and data. Results indicate that a county and state investment of US$3.5 million each leveraged US$11.7 million in federal funds, contributed almost US$22.2 million to Missouri’s gross state product (GSP), and was responsible for more than 435 jobs for Missourians. An estimated 13.8 million of those dollars were "new" to the state’s economy. Economic impact analyses showed that PfH spending facilitated economic growth. The unique structure of PfH grants counties greater administrative authority and allows the state and counties to split the state Medicaid match dollar amount. Furthermore, results indicate that encouraging participants to self-direct services, and providing support for them to do so, is beneficial to a state’s economy, particularly job creation.
This article discusses how education initiatives reflected in federal education reforms, statutes, and proposed agendas might be integrated and aligned using a quality of life (QOL) conceptual model. The article incorporates key aspects of the following into such an integrative framework: the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act; a framework for 21st-century learning; previous, current, and new reform agendas and policy initiatives; and the QOL construct. The authors discuss how education initiatives reflected in federal education reforms, statutes, and proposed agendas might be integrated and aligned using a QOL conceptual model.
Use of physical restraint and seclusion procedures in schools continues to be controversial, and foster proposals for federal and state legislation and regulation. Despite much discussion about what policies are needed, there has been little discussion about the professional practice issues and the ethical issues related to these practices. The purpose of this report is to present six clusters of professional practice and ethical issues that have not heretofore been specifically identified. To do so, we will examine the codes of professional practice and ethics of organizations representing educators who work with students with severe behavioral challenges. To illustrate these issues, we use real-world case examples from media stories and official reports about problems resulting from restraint and seclusion. Although individuals may disagree regarding decisions about these ethical issues, these questions should be a part of any policy discussion related to professional practice regarding these issues, and they have rarely been addressed in the restraint and seclusion policy debate. In addition, they are also questions that must be examined by all professional educators for them to assure adherence to the professional practice and ethical codes for their field.
More than US$100 billion is spent annually by the U.S. federal government in income maintenance in the form of Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) to workers with disabilities—the majority of whom are not in the labor market. Despite this large sum, however, little is known about the extent to which disability beneficiaries contribute to the economy through nonmarket work. This study uses data from the 2003–2012 American Time Use Survey, matched to the Current Population Survey, to provide the first nationally representative analysis of nonmarket time use among SSDI beneficiaries. A replacement wage approach is then used to assign monetary value to beneficiaries’ nonmarket time and to evaluate the relative contribution of that monetary value to gross domestic product (GDP) and average aggregate SSDI payments. Results indicate that beneficiaries, on average, report nearly 4.5 hr per day of nonmarket production. These inputs would comprise between .69% and .98% of total GDP if they were compensated in the market, depending on methodology and year of observation. Furthermore, the value of beneficiaries’ inputs exceeds the cost of average aggregate payments to beneficiaries across all years. Thus, SSDI beneficiaries report substantial production, albeit not in the market.
Using data from the 2010–2012 American Community Survey (ACS), we estimate employment outcomes among persons with different combinations of sensory, functional, and activity limitations while controlling for individual characteristics. We consider activity limitations as indicators of barriers to independent living and of a need for support services. We find that the presence of an activity limitation is strongly associated with decreased odds of employment for persons with sensory or functional limitations. Results provide support for the targeted allocation of resources to increase independent living among persons with disabilities as a means to improve employment outcomes among persons with disabilities.
The Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) Employment Pilot in Wisconsin was one of four Social Security Administration authorized pilots to test a cash benefit offset feature for the SSDI program. Those allowed to use the offset only lost US$1 of their SSDI cash benefit for every US$2 earned when their monthly earnings reached the Substantial Gainful Activity (SGA) level after completing the Trial Work Period (TWP). Over the first two years following pilot enrollment, no statistically significant differences were observed in employment outcomes between the treatment and control groups. However, after these first two years, outcome trends diverged, ultimately leading to the treatment group exhibiting better outcomes. The differences between treatment and control participants were conditioned on whether participants completed their TWP by the end of 2008. Subsequently, there were statistically significant differences between outcome trends for the two groups of TWP completers. There were virtually no differences between the outcome trends for the groups with no TWP completers. These results are consistent with an interpretation that the cash benefit offset, given adequate time, can be an effective work incentive.
Once students with disabilities leave high school, they must take proactive steps to document their disabilities to educational institutions or employers when requesting accommodations. The Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) has been the principal organization offering suggestions on documentation requirements, and AHEAD’s recently revised guidance involves radical changes to the suggested requirements. AHEAD now recommends that students’ self-reports and disability services professionals’ impressions take precedence over external, objective records. This article reviews the relevant research to evaluate the evidence base for the revised guidance, finding it lacking in important ways as it applies to hidden disabilities (learning, cognitive, and psychiatric disabilities). The evidence supporting various sources of disability documentation is reviewed, and implications for policy and practice are discussed.
Using two administrative data sets from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), this study examines the relationship between employer and environmental characteristics and Americans With Disability Act (ADA) discrimination charge rate. Results of a multiple regression analysis using a sample of mid- to large-sized private employers indicate that establishment size is negatively correlated with ADA charge rate, whereas several other employer characteristics are positively associated with charge rate, including parent organization size, federal contractor status, transportation or services industries, and relatively high minority representation. One of the main concerns of contemporary disability policy is reducing discrimination in employment, and our findings can inform employers, policymakers, and organizations working with employers to reduce perceived discrimination by identifying those employers most likely to receive charges. Further research is needed to better understand what specific behaviors, practices, and policies within these different types of establishments explain their differential charge rates.
This study investigates whether the consumption of households that include individuals with physical disabilities (IWPD) depends on the employment status of such individuals. Data from the 2012 Panel Survey of Employment for the Disabled (PSED) conducted by the Korea Employment Agency for the Disabled were used to ascertain the consumption patterns, consumption functions, income elasticity, and Engel coefficient of households that include IWPD. An independent t test was used to differentiate between employment and unemployment status. The results revealed that the consumption patterns of such households were similar to those of a typical poor household. Although these patterns did not differ according to the employment status of IWPD, the number of items in the consumption expenditure of a household that includes employed IWPD was larger than that of a household that includes unemployed IWPD. Income had a significant effect on all expenditure items. Furthermore, only savings were classified as a luxury, regardless of employment status. The analysis results of this study could enable researchers to capture the problems facing IWPD and provide greater insight into their economic status.
The purpose of this study is to learn how support brokers (program counselors) carry out and are prepared for their roles in participant-directed programs. More specifically, this study looks at support brokers’ self-perceived roles, training, educational backgrounds, and how well they feel they are prepared for their jobs with Cash and Counseling programs. This study involves two phases of data collection. First, a 20-item survey was sent electronically to support brokers in three states (n = 138) in 2011. Descriptive statistics and t tests were used for the analysis. The second phase involves follow-up telephone interviews (n = 15) with a convenience sample who agreed to participate. Results showed an inconsistency in role definitions and types of training between and within individual states. Moreover, educational backgrounds had a significant influence on the level of support brokers’ perceived preparedness for given tasks. Finally, this study identifies areas that support brokers believe will help improve their performance.
This article examines parent and child characteristics that are associated with utilization of funds authorized under Part C of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Child age and the presence of parent service needs are among the variables that influence how much early intervention service is available for infants and toddlers with developmental delays and disabilities, as authorized by the Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP). Higher levels of child need were associated with a larger number of services authorized, and greater amounts of unspent funds. It appears that children of high needs parents are less likely to use additional services their children need. These findings are interpreted to suggest that family and child characteristics that promote larger authorizations for Part C services may also limit their ability to utilize all of the services identified in the IFSP. In addition, this study found that contrary to expectations, the home environment was not superior to specialty and clinic settings on parent involvement in early intervention activities.
An ongoing challenge in serving students with emotional or behavioral disorders (E/BD) is the practice that may allow schools to exclude students from special education programs and services based on certain behavioral patterns. This review (a) examines the application of the exclusionary clause in recent judicial rulings and (b) provides practice implications in serving youth with E/BD.
Participant direction (PD) programs offer the individual with a disability or his or her surrogate decision maker varying degrees of choice and control over the individual’s supports and services. We conducted a document analysis using grounded theory methods to identify the design elements of participant direction programs in long-term care. We analyzed 53 documents across multiple disabilities and funding sources. We identified and defined two major components of participant direction programs: policy and aid and assistance. The component of policy was represented by three structures that guide implementation of participant direction programs: (a) option to participant-direct, (b) participation stipulations, and (c) provider qualifications. The component of aid and assistance was represented by 11 structures that support program participants: (a) financial management services, (b) employer of record, (c) emergency back-up, (d) worker registry, (e) advice/counseling, (f) managerial assistance, (g) information dissemination products, (h) service quality monitoring, (i) service coordination, (j) participant training, and (k) provider training. Each structure was represented by one or more continua depicting the range of choice and control participants may have over the structure. The findings of this study have implications for improving the standardization of research on participant direction programs and the development of long-term care policy.
Using data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 results of a propensity score analysis revealed significant causal effects for inclusive placement in high school on postsecondary education outcomes for adolescents with learning disabilities or emotional-behavior disorders 2 years after high school completion. Students earning 80% or more of their academic credits in general education settings (inclusive placement) were twice as likely to enroll and persist in postsecondary education when compared with students receiving fewer credits in inclusive classroom settings. These findings extend results of past descriptive and correlational studies by detecting a direct causal link between inclusion and postsecondary education.
School-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS) is designed to improve learning environments by increasing the (a) amount of time students are in school (e.g., decreased out-of-school suspensions), (b) proportion of minutes students are engaged in instruction, and (c) level of academic engagement of students during instruction. The underlying assumption is that by improving social behavior, schools have more time to deliver effective instruction. However, to date, this assumption has not been fully investigated. The goal of this study was to explicitly examine the impact of SWPBS on school-wide academic achievement. First, a comprehensive review of the SWPBS literature was conducted to determine the impact of SWPBS on academic achievement. Then, a longitudinal state-level analysis of schools implementing SWPBS and propensity score-matched control schools was conducted to identify differential effects. Results indicated little to no relationship between SWPBS alone and school-level academic achievement. Implications, considerations, and future directions are discussed.
We analyzed the design of various U.S. programs of participant direction offering participants (individual with a disability or his or her surrogate decision-maker) some level of choice and control over the individual’s long-term care supports and services. We used grounded theory methods to conduct a document analysis of 53 documents published from 2004 through 2008 representing multiple disabilities and program funding sources. In our analysis, we identified three major components (planning, budgeting, and employing) over which participants had the opportunity to exercise choice and control and the activities associated with each. Activities were represented by one or more continua illustrating the range of participant choice and control over the indicator. The component of planning consisted of the activity of care plan development. The budgeting component included the activities of (a) development, (b) individualization, and (c) authority. The employing component included the activities of (a) identifying/selecting providers, (b) hiring/employing providers, (c) scheduling providers, (d) training providers, (e) managing/directing/supervising providers, (f) disciplining/dismissing providers, (g) keeping records, (h) managing payroll, (i) locating emergency back-up, and (j) monitoring service quality. The findings of this study have implications for improving policy, practice, and research in the field of long-term care.
Achieving healthy weight for people with disabilities in the United States is a challenge. Obesity rates for adults and children with disabilities are significantly higher than for those without disabilities, with differences remaining even when controlling for other factors. Reasons for this disparity include lack of healthy food options for many people with disabilities living in restrictive environments, difficulty with chewing or swallowing food, medication use contributing to changes in appetite, physical limitations that can reduce a person’s ability to exercise, constant pain, energy imbalance, lack of accessible environments in which to exercise or fully participate in other activities, and resource scarcity among many segments of the disability population. In order for there to be a coordinated national effort to address this issue, a framework needs to be developed from which research, policy, and practice can emerge. This paper reviews existing literature and presents a conceptual model that can be used to inform such a framework, provides examples of promising practices, and discusses challenges and opportunities moving forward.
Olmstead v. L.C. upheld the civil rights of individuals with disabilities to live, learn, work, and socialize in the community of their choice. The built environment plays a role in the community integration of individuals with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to evaluate states’ Olmstead Plans to determine the extent to which they address the role of the built environment in community integration of individuals with disabilities. The majority of the reviewed plans did not demonstrate a reasonably clear acknowledgment of the role of the built environment in community integration. The Olmstead Plans did address housing and transportation. However, housing and transportation policies need to reach out beyond disability into the community to affect the community integration of individuals with disabilities. An important step toward community integration through community planning practices is the inclusion of individuals with disabilities in the standard community processes at the policy level.
The process of selecting, implementing, and scaling-up evidence-based practices is a major focus and difficult accomplishment for states. Renewed commitment to improving student outcomes has led directly to the need for effective practices implemented at scale. The funding decisions made at state, regional, and district levels remain a key to large-scale implementation of effective practices. In this article, we summarize the funding decisions of nine states that implemented School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) across at least 500 schools or 30% of the schools in the state. A survey about funding sources, funding levels, and funding decisions was completed by the key implementers in each state, and a follow-up interview was used to clarify and confirm initial information. The results indicate that different states used different funding approaches, but in general, funding of SWPBIS was provided predominantly through special education sources and that initial demonstrations led to larger scale implementation when state policy makers developed creative procedures for using multiple funding sources within a unified implementation effort. Implications for funding the scaling of evidence-based practices are discussed.
Academic failure and exclusionary discipline practices are key elements in what has been described as the "school to prison pipeline." While there exists a strong body of research on the risks for delinquency, few studies have addressed the variables within schools that exacerbate or counteract these risks. We examined the academic pathways in English/Language Arts (E/LA) of a group of students recommended for expulsion in one school district, including students with and without disabilities. We obtained the letter grades that students received and the statewide assessment (SWA) results from elementary through high school for 81 participants who were recommended for expulsion in high school. Multiple t tests demonstrated that overall, students’ performance decreased as they progressed through school and students’ SWA scores differed considerably from course performance grades in elementary school. We discuss the results in terms of implications and recommendations for improving the educational pathways of students at risk of school expulsion.
The unmet needs of persons needing long-term care have recently drawn attention in China, the nation with the world’s largest elderly population. Using national panel data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS), we examined the 3-year mortality of 3,089 Chinese adults above the age of 65 years who required long-term care. Long-term care needs were measured by the inability to perform any of the following six activities of daily living for 3 months: eating, dressing, bathing, getting in/out of the bed, indoor transferring, and toileting. Exponential parametric hazard models were used to investigate the association between unmet care needs on subsequent mortality. Results showed that older adults with unmet needs had an approximately 10% increased risk of mortality compared with those whose needs were met when demographics were under control. The risks were particularly elevated among older women and among urban older adults. We conclude by discussing these findings and the importance of a national social insurance program (or additional programs) specialized for the provision of long-term care in China.
The accumulation of human capital during childhood and adolescence greatly influences the value employers place on youth as they transition into the adult labor market. Disabilities acquired prior to adulthood have the potential to disrupt this critical human capital accumulation. This study examines how disability onset among youth affects their education and employment outcomes as young adults. We find that youth with limiting disabilities—especially mental limiting impairments—have poorer labor market and human capital outcomes than their peers without limitations. We also discover some evidence that youth with persistent or later onset disabilities have poorer outcomes than those whose disabilities dissipate as they become adults. These findings suggest that surveys targeting youth and young adults should consider including better measures of disability onset and mental impairment status to understand the disability characteristics of this population.
School districts have struggled with special education teacher shortages for over a decade. Special education teachers who leave the profession after a few years certainly contribute to the shortage. Project ReSpecT (Retaining Special Education Teachers) was a federally funded project to develop and implement a mentoring model designed to retain 1st-year special education teachers. The purpose of this article is to describe the first two phases of Project ReSpecT, including the research that led to the development of the model and the pilot test phase. We also discuss the preliminary findings from this study in the context of results from similar programs. We end by discussing implications for educational policy and practice for mentoring models.
The need to provide valid and unbiased psychoeducational assessments to children from diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds has been a prominent legal and judicial discussion in the context of the special education law; however, the question of how to provide biased and unbiased psychoeducational assessments to children with visual or hearing impairment has not been well addressed. This article discusses the case law and mandates surrounding unbiased psychoeducational assessment and how they might apply to students with sensory disabilities. This article focuses on issues related to assessment of children who are deaf or blind or have hearing impairment or visual impairment, including the inaccessibility of commonly used intelligence and achievement tests and the legal implications thereof, and provides recommendations for best practice in assessing students with sensory disabilities.
Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) increasingly receive assistance from service dogs. Nonetheless, confusion surrounding service dogs for students with ASD has precipitated litigation between parents and schools. The purpose of this review was to examine state laws pertaining to the use of service dogs among children with ASD. Statutes were evaluated to identify all disability classifications eligible to use a service dog, regulations related to the authorized training of service animals, and school access for service animals. Results suggest that current state laws do not facilitate the use of service dogs by children with ASD or provide sufficient guidance for parents and schools. Recommendations for policy follow a discussion of the results.
A comprehensive analysis of the 2009 Current Population Survey–Annual Social and Economic Supplement (CPS-ASEC) provides the first snapshot of the involvement of people with disabilities in a broad array of government programs. Focusing on the working-age population, this analysis reveals that people with disabilities represent one third of the persons who participate in safety-net programs. Among persons with disabilities, 65% participate in a safety-net program, compared with 17% of persons without disabilities. Among Social Security Disability Insurance (DI) beneficiaries, 38% participate in safety-net programs other than DI, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), Medicaid, and Medicare. Furthermore, results suggest that only 3% and 8% of low-income nonworking safety-net participants with and without disabilities, respectively, utilize employment services. Improved data collection on the use of employment services is needed to further evaluate the interaction of safety-net and employment services programs.
A new criticism of the variety in measures serving to identify the disabled population in the American Community Survey (ACS) has been raised by Burkhauser, Houtenville, and Tennant. That criticism identifies the lack of a participation component, specifically a measure of work limitation, as creating bias resulting in an underestimate of the size of the working-age population with disabilities. The purpose of this article is to provide another perspective on the relationship of the current ACS measure and a work limitation measure demonstrating the complications introduced by combining measures that represent two different metrics and introducing an unmeasured environmental element. The relationship of the measures with receipt of Social Security Disability Insurance or Supplemental Security Insurance is also examined and discussed.
The 2008 amendments to the Americans With Disabilities Act have now been followed by implementation guidelines from the Department of Justice. These guidelines take strong positions on how testing entities should review requests for testing accommodations from examinees with disabilities. In this article, themes from the guidelines are evaluated against the findings of recent empirical research, highlighting major discrepancies. In general, the Department of Justice places more trust in the accommodations expertise of K–12 schools, clinical professionals, and testing entities than is warranted by empirical research. This trust is likely to lead to excessive recommendation of testing accommodations, even when they threaten a test’s validity. Several implications of these findings for practice and policy are discussed.
Using linked administrative records, we examined expenditure patterns under cash benefit and health insurance programs for 68,794 individuals first eligible for Social Security Disability Insurance (DI) and/or Supplemental Security Income (SSI) in 2000. Expenditures were tracked until death, age 65, or December 31, 2006. Cumulative per capita expenditures averaged US$111,160 in 2006 constant dollars, with 54% incurred under DI, 5% under SSI, and about 20% each under Medicare and Medicaid. SSI and Medicaid expenditures were somewhat higher early on. We concluded that SSI is a relatively low-expenditure program, but it has a major impact on total expenditures by providing access to Medicaid. An important role of SSI and Medicaid is to provide a temporary safety net supporting DI beneficiaries during their DI and Medicare waiting periods. The linkage of expenditure data under these four programs may be useful for evaluating the potential savings of initiatives to encourage individuals with disabilities to remain in the workforce.
People with disabilities (PWD) are more likely than those without disabilities to experience barriers when accessing healthcare, often leading to unmet needs. The chasm between what providers perceive as adequate care for PWD and the actual health care needs as perceived by PWD remains significant. Using data from 360 health care providers and 540 Medicaid eligible PWD, we compared perceived barriers to care faced by PWD from the perspective of both providers and PWD. Our results indicated major variations in provider and PWD perceptions about barriers to care. PWD and providers both perceived transportation issues as the highest ranked barriers and physical access issues as the lowest ranked barriers. Multivariate results indicated that PWD reported barriers when communicating with providers, although providers did not consider communication as a major barrier. Among PWD, those with multiple types of disabilities were more likely to experience barriers when communicating with providers compared with other PWD. In addition, providers considered insurance a barrier to care, although this was not the perception of PWD. Particularly in the era of health care reform, policy responses to these findings should address the specific needs of people with different types of disabling conditions rather than assuming all PWD face similar challenges in accessing and utilizing health care.
Little is known of the relationship between the least restrictive environment (LRE) provision of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and postsecondary participation for secondary students with disabilities despite the current policy emphasis on college and career readiness for all students. In this study, we examined the instructional setting in English/language arts and mathematics among secondary students with disabilities using data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2. Logistic regression analyses revealed that students with disabilities were 2 times more likely to participate in 2- and 4-year programs if they received general education instruction in math. Follow-up moderator analyses showed the likelihood of 4-year postsecondary participation among students with hearing, speech, visual, orthopedic, and other health impairments was significantly amplified if they received language arts instruction in general education classrooms. These findings serve as useful baseline data to compare with student outcomes during and after the No Child Left Behind Act and will ultimately inform transition planning for secondary students with disabilities.
Alternative education (AE) settings such as residential and juvenile justice facilities and self-contained schools are complex settings for students with unique academic and behavioral needs. The schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and support (SWPBIS) model has proven utility in traditional schools, but little research exists to inform SWPBIS implementation in AE settings. To address this research gap, the researchers conducted two separate focus groups with similar AE settings regarding their integration of SWPBIS with an existing behavior management system. Resulting themes between and within groups are presented in terms of systems, data, and practice. The two settings discussed similar challenges, although their responses to these challenges were in stark contrast, as were the resulting success of SWPBIS integration. Limitations and future directions for researchers are described in addition to specific policy implications.
Parents’ involvement in their child’s education has been an important tenet of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Under the special education accountability system that went into effect in 2005, states have been required to report annually to the federal government on the percentage of parents with a child receiving special education services who report that schools facilitated parent involvement. This study investigated the variability of states’ reported results owing to states’ different choices with regard to items, metrics, and standards used to calculate their percentage on the indicator. Findings indicated that the application of different methodologies could result in reported percentages that vary by as much as 40 percentage points. It is argued that when reported results do not mean the same thing across states, the accountability system may fail in its mission to provide stakeholders with clear information to evaluate program performance and guide improvement efforts.
The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) and Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) had implications for teachers and students at all levels (i.e., elementary, middle, high school). Specifically, IDEA had implications for secondary students with disabilities because it required students with disabilities exit high school prepared for postschool education, employment, and independent living. When considering federal mandates and reform initiatives, state and local education agencies have to consider how students with disabilities and secondary transition will be affected. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of secondary transition evidence-based practices and predictors of postschool success for student with disabilities. Implications for policymakers related to improving secondary transition programs and practices at federal, state, and local levels are discussed.
The continuum of educational environments exists to ensure the most appropriate and least restrictive educational setting for students with disabilities. One setting schools use to provide services to students with an emotional disturbance (ED) is an alternative school. How schools make decisions regarding student placement into and out of this setting lacks examination. This study identifies factors considered when making placements into and out of three alternative schools for students with ED. A mixed-methods approach was used to collect data from key stakeholders from each school involved with decision-making authority regarding student placement. Findings include (a) limited transitioning of students back to less restrictive settings, (b) greater number of factors considered during exit decisions from alternative schools than entry, and (c) student’s return to a less restrictive setting not contingent on those factors considered when placing the student into the school.
This article provides a comparison between the mission and development processes of the disability movement in Israel and the United States. It examines whether the organizations that were supposed to construct the movement have succeeded in their mission through the adoption of the disability rights legislations or have been able to introduce a new agenda. The review and analysis are based on Israeli and foreign sources, in-depth interviews with prominent Israeli activists, and observations of protests and conferences held in Israel in recent years. Findings indicate that in comparison with the United States, the Israeli organizations’ activities are defensive in nature, operating in a fairly young civic society, and have, therefore, failed to create an overall disability movement. The enactment of disability rights legislation left disability activists, in both countries, at a crossroads regarding their future mission. The conclusion reached is that if they wish to survive, they will need to cooperate with other civic organizations and probably renew their social contracts with their constituencies.
The Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) Program, within the Utah State Office of Rehabilitation, provides services to individuals with disabilities to assist them in preparing for and obtaining employment. Assistance is provided through numerous services including assessment, counseling and guidance, restoration, training, job development, and job placement. This study explored the return on public investments in the VR Program. The findings indicate that the VR Program has a positive impact on employment outcomes and the earnings of the clients served. In addition to the private benefits of the program, the state of Utah also benefits from the increased earnings through additional tax revenue and a reduction in public benefits to participants.
Federal and state policies concerning disability issues are often made based on advocacy efforts by individuals with disabilities and their allies. Providing self-advocacy and leadership training to youth with disabilities has been widely regarded as critically important to promote legislation and policies that support these individuals. This study evaluated the effects of the youth leadership summer training on the self-advocacy abilities of high school students with disabilities. A nonequivalent group design was used. The sample included 68 high school juniors and seniors aged 16 to 22, with 34 in the experimental group and 34 in the control group. The Texas Statewide Youth Leadership Forum Pre/Post Questionnaire was used to measure the participants’ self-advocacy abilities a week prior to the training and immediately following the training. Results indicated that the training improved the self-advocacy abilities of the participants, individuals with developmental disabilities gained significantly more than the other disability groups, and gender did not interact with treatment to affect the self-advocacy abilities of these participants. Implications to policy and practices are discussed.
The construct of learning disabilities has been challenged pedagogically, politically, and in the judiciary. Some claim that learning disabilities are socially constructed and created by misdirected efforts of educational reform. Politicians worry about the growing number of children served in special education and propose that many LD students are instructional casualties and not truly disabled. The judiciary has applied a severity screen that narrows the class of eligible children and has contributed to the LD eligibility confusion. This article traces the legislative history of LD eligibility, reviews administrative and judicial decisions pertaining to LD eligibility, and explores the dilemma inherent in a rights-based approach to ensuring equitable educational opportunity for students with LD.
The Social Security Administration funded the development of a screener that could accurately classify household members into one of four disability groups (likely disabled, possibly disabled, not disabled, or current social security disability beneficiaries) for purposes of a larger national study. The authors developed a questionnaire, tested five screener algorithms on data from a pilot study, and assessed the performance of each screener in identifying individuals who are likely disabled, possibly disabled, and not disabled. An algorithm using the item response theory methodology of Rasch modeling offered the greatest improvement over the original screener algorithm and appeared to be quite superior to the other alternatives.
The purpose of this study is to examine the implications of using different approaches to estimating the U.S. working-age population with disabilities. The approaches compared are the traditional work-activity limitation question, the Census Bureau’s newer six-question sequence that does not include a work-activity limitation question, and the combination of the two. With data from the Current Population Survey and the American Community Survey, the authors demonstrate that using the work-limitation question or the six-question sequence alone results in an underestimate of the size of the working-age population with disabilities (assuming the International Classification of Disability, Health, and Functioning conceptualization of disabilities). Furthermore, the authors show that using the sample of the working-age population with disabilities identified by the six-question sequence will lead to biased estimates of key social policy success parameters; in particular, it will overestimate their employment rates and underestimate the share that are receiving Social Security Disability Insurance or Supplemental Security Income-Disabled Adults benefits relative to the broader sample that includes a work-limitation question and the six-question sequence.
The author examines the policies and treatment of children institutionalized during and after the communist regime, the adoption policies for these children, the human rights claimed in the name of these children, and the ecology of disabilities in Romania. Institutionalized children fell into three categories: children who had one or more minor to severe disabilities, children who had been abandoned, and children who were part of ethnic minorities, especially the Roma. The author reviews the literature on these topics and adds her own perspective, as a Romanian special education teacher and researcher. While during communism, institutionalized persons were invisible to the public and kept in inhuman conditions, after communism, increased awareness about the situation in state institutions and about disabilities and human rights in general led to the adoption and implementation of new disability-friendly policies. Currently, there is increased advocacy for the rights of the people with disabilities, although great challenges remain.
In the spirit of international cooperation and to advance human rights, many nations have signed and ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD). Ratification, however, differs from implementation, as the current analysis of the disability policy of the United Republic of Tanzania reflects. Here, the authors have accepted the Tanzanian Minister for Labour, Youth Development, and Sports’ invitation for local and international communities to rally to ensure that the desired outcomes of the NPD are realized. They examine Tanzania’s National Policy on Disability (NPD) using a policy analysis framework that has identified 18 core concepts of disability policy. They compare and contrast Tanzania’s NPD with this framework and conclude that the core concept of accountability is absent from the NPD. The authors then propose accountability techniques that might assist Tanzania to fulfill its firm and early commitment to the UN CRPD.
Due process is a key dispute resolution feature approved by Congress in accordance with the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, whose goal is to facilitate resolution and minimize conflict. Nonetheless, despite 35 years of use, due process has become a difficult emotional and financial problem. Consequently, there is a need to evaluate due process and develop less adversarial resolution practices. The goal of the study herein is to place in perspective a descriptive analysis of 575 due process hearings that occurred in 41 states in 2005 to 2006 by analyzing the petitioner, disability, dispute, and outcome including hearings of specific learning disabilities (26%), autism (20%), and health impairments (15%). The most common sources of dispute were placement (25%) and Individualized Education Program and program appropriateness (24%). Parents initiated 85% of the hearings, but school districts prevailed in 59%. Interestingly, the majority of states lacked easy retrieval and consistency with reporting their own published hearings.
The One-Stop Career Center system in the United States and the Jobcentre Plus system in Great Britain provide universal access to public employment services targeted at all job seekers, including people with disabilities, and employer services. Studies have identified challenges with these universal models in that some job seekers with disabilities may have additional or more intense support needs. Disability specialist positions provide one way of addressing these needs. This article examines their roles and responsibilities and their effectiveness in improving employment service delivery through these systems. The article highlights commonalities and differences associated with the roles between the two countries and discusses implications for improving effectiveness. Findings are based on a scoping review of existing empirical research that was conducted in 2008. The article concludes with directions for future research.